My idea of Reliability Mapping are centered around thematics (subject), cognition flow process and deliverables as labelled and maintained on a set of matrix elemental sheets which are designed to hold the information perceived from a study set of performers.
Within the construct of a Science or a Mathematics course in the field of Distance Education, we can observe and empirically gain information with the intent of achieving and uncovering ways to gain better standards for any group of performers. The cognition flow process, i.e. the way in which the students are assimilating the information as presented in the platform, can be logged in a way that illuminates the Instructor's teaching methodology as being adequate or needing in the way of enhancement deliverables.
I will be adding to these parameters as I proceed.
Thank you:)
Tuesday, December 29, 2009
Causality: Distance Education and Distance Learning/ Margith Strand/ December 29, 2009
Causality: To move forward the respective fields of learning so that the all of the facets of the infrastructure which support the mission can maintain the standards and exceed the expectations of the incoming future.
Contextuality in terms of Distance Education and Distance Learning/ Margith Strand/ December 29, 2009
Contexuality in terms of Distance Education and Distance Learning:
Interactive sessioning which builds the constructs of the subject matter covered within the fields of Distance Education and Distance Learning in ways that enhance the missions as defined by the individual expressions of the theories and experential construct of the particular knowledge-base.
Interactive sessioning which builds the constructs of the subject matter covered within the fields of Distance Education and Distance Learning in ways that enhance the missions as defined by the individual expressions of the theories and experential construct of the particular knowledge-base.
Saturday, December 26, 2009
Saturday, December 5, 2009
Latest Actions in Native American/ FCC
Indian Telecommunications Initiatives
7/29/09 - Commissioner Copps' Remarks, Indian Telecommunications Initiative, Rapid City, South Dakota.
Remarks: Word | Acrobat
Recent Events
06/18/09 - FCC To Hold Eighth Indian Telecommunications Initiatives (ITI) Regional Workshop And Roundtable.
News Release: Word | Acrobat
06/23/08 - FCC To Hold Seventh Indian Telecommunications Initiatives (ITI) Regional Workshop And Roundtable.
News Release: Word | Acrobat
06/28/07 - FCC Announces Preliminary Agenda Topics for Indian Telecommunications Initiatives (ITI) Regional Workshop in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Public Notice: Word | Acrobat
06/08/07 - FCC, Native Public Media, The National Congress of American Indians, and Native American Public Telecommunications to Host Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Regional Workshop and Roundtable. Public Notice: Word | Acrobat
10/23/06 - Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Program to be Webcast.
10/23/06 - ITI Public Safety and Homeland Security Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana, Agenda Released.
10/19/06 - Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Public Safety and Homeland Security Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana, updated location information.
10/10/06 - FCC Announces Agenda Topics For Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana.
09/11/06 - Date of Indian Telecommunications Initiative Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana changed to October 24-25, 2006.
July 2006 – As part of the FCC’s Indian Telecommunications Initiatives program (“ITI”), and in cooperation with Southern California Tribal Chairman’s Association (“SCTCA”) Tribal Digital Village, the National Congress of American Indians (“NCAI”), and the Center for Native American Public Radio (“CNAPR”), the FCC hosted its fifth ITI Regional Workshop and Roundtable (“ITI San Diego”) on July 27th and 28th in San Diego, California.
Recent Events Archive
7/29/09 - Commissioner Copps' Remarks, Indian Telecommunications Initiative, Rapid City, South Dakota.
Remarks: Word | Acrobat
Recent Events
06/18/09 - FCC To Hold Eighth Indian Telecommunications Initiatives (ITI) Regional Workshop And Roundtable.
News Release: Word | Acrobat
06/23/08 - FCC To Hold Seventh Indian Telecommunications Initiatives (ITI) Regional Workshop And Roundtable.
News Release: Word | Acrobat
06/28/07 - FCC Announces Preliminary Agenda Topics for Indian Telecommunications Initiatives (ITI) Regional Workshop in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Public Notice: Word | Acrobat
06/08/07 - FCC, Native Public Media, The National Congress of American Indians, and Native American Public Telecommunications to Host Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Regional Workshop and Roundtable. Public Notice: Word | Acrobat
10/23/06 - Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Program to be Webcast.
10/23/06 - ITI Public Safety and Homeland Security Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana, Agenda Released.
10/19/06 - Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Public Safety and Homeland Security Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana, updated location information.
10/10/06 - FCC Announces Agenda Topics For Indian Telecommunications Initiatives Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana.
09/11/06 - Date of Indian Telecommunications Initiative Regional Workshop and Roundtable in Polson, Montana changed to October 24-25, 2006.
July 2006 – As part of the FCC’s Indian Telecommunications Initiatives program (“ITI”), and in cooperation with Southern California Tribal Chairman’s Association (“SCTCA”) Tribal Digital Village, the National Congress of American Indians (“NCAI”), and the Center for Native American Public Radio (“CNAPR”), the FCC hosted its fifth ITI Regional Workshop and Roundtable (“ITI San Diego”) on July 27th and 28th in San Diego, California.
Recent Events Archive
Thursday, November 12, 2009
Reliability Concept Mapping/ Matrix format- Data early derivative ideas: M.A.S. for application to Semiotic Theories
The Reliability of Concept Mapping
William M.K. Trochim
Cornell University
DRAFT: Not for quotation or citation. Comments would be greatly appreciated.
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, Texas, November 6, 1993. This research was supported in part through NIMH Grant R01MH46712-01A1, William M.K. Trochim, Principal Investigator.
Abstract
Because of the growing interest in and use of the concept mapping methodology, it is important to define rigorous and feasible standards of quality. This paper addresses the issue of the reliability of concept mapping. Six different reliability coefficients that can easily be estimated from the data typically available from any concept mapping project were defined and estimated for 38 different concept mapping projects. Results indicate that the concept mapping process can be considered reliable according to generally-recognized standards for acceptable reliability levels. It is recommended that the reliabilities estimated here be routinely reported with concept mapping project results.
The Reliability of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a process that can be used to help a group describe its ideas on any topic of interest (Trochim, 1989a). The process typically requires the participants to brainstorm a large set of statements relevant to the topic of interest, individually sort these statements into piles of similar ones and rate each statement on some scale, and interpret the maps that result from the data analyses. The analyses typically include a two-dimensional multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the unstructured sort data, a hierarchical cluster analysis of the MDS coordinates, and the computation of average ratings for each statement and cluster of statements. The maps that result show the individual statements in two-dimensional (x,y) space with more similar statements located nearer each other, and show how the statements are grouped into clusters that partition the space on the map. Participants are led through a structured interpretation session designed to help them understand the maps and label them in a substantively meaningful way.
The concept mapping process as discussed here was first described by Trochim and Linton (1986). Trochim (1989a) delineates the process in detail and Trochim (1989b) presents a wide range of example projects. Concept mapping has received considerable use and appears to be growing in popularity. It has been used to address substantive issues in the social services (Galvin, 1989; Mannes, 1989), mental health (Cook, 1992; Kane, 1992; Lassegard, 1993; Marquart, 1988; Marquart, 1992; Marquart et al, 1993; Penney, 1992; Ryan and Pursley, 1992; Shern, 1992; Trochim, 1989a; Trochim and Cook, 1992; Trochim et al, in press; Valentine, 1992), health care (Valentine, 1989), education (Grayson, 1993; Kohler, 1992; Kohler, 1993), educational administration (Gurowitz et al, 1988), and theory development (Linton, 1989). Considerable methodological work on the concept mapping process and its potential utility has also been accomplished (Bragg and Grayson, 1993; Caracelli, 1989; Cooksy, 1989; Davis, 1989; Dumont, 1989; Grayson, 1992; Keith, 1989; Lassegard, 1992; Marquart, 1989; Mead and Bowers, 1992; Mercer, 1992; SenGupta, 1993; Trochim, 1985 , 1989c, 1990).
Given the broad and apparently increasing utilization of the concept mapping method, it is increasingly important that issues related to the quality of the process be investigated. In most social science research, the quality of the measurement is assessed through estimation of reliability and validity. This paper considers only the reliability of concept mapping.
The traditional theory of reliability typically applied in social research does not fit the concept mapping model well. That theory assumes that for each test item there is a correct answer that is known a priori. The performance of each individual is measured on each question and coded correct or incorrect. Data are typically stored in a rectangular matrix with the rows being persons and the columns test items. Reliability assessment focuses on the test questions or on the total score of the test. That is, we can meaningfully estimate the reliability of each test item, or of the total score.
Concept mapping involves a different emphasis altogether. There is no assumed correct answer or correct sort. Instead, it is assumed that there may be some normatively typical arrangement of the statements that is reflected imperfectly in the sorts of all members who come from the same relatively homogeneous (with respect to the construct of interest) cultural group. The emphasis in reliability assessment shifts from the item to the person. For purposes of reliability assessment, the structure of the data matrix is reversed, with persons as the columns and items (or pairs of items) as the rows. Reliability assessment focuses on the consistency across the assumed relatively homogeneous set of participants. In this sense, it is meaningful to speak of the reliability of the similarity matrix or the reliability of the map in concept mapping, but not of the reliability of individual statements.
This paper presents several ways of estimating the reliability or consistency of concept mapping. The various estimates of reliability are illustrated on data from a large heterogeneous group of prior concept mapping projects. The distributions of reliability estimates across many projects provide realistic estimates of the level of reliability one might expect in typical field applications of concept mapping.
The Concept Mapping Process
Traditional presentations of concept mapping describe it as a six-step process as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The six steps in the concept mapping process.
During the preparation step, the focus for the concept mapping is operationalized, participants are selected, and a schedule is developed. The generation step is usually accomplished through a simple brainstorming (Osborn, 1948) of a large set of statements related to the focus. In the structuring step, each participant completes an unstructured sorting (Rosenberg and Kim, 1975; Weller and Romney, 1988) of the statements into piles of similar ones, and rates each statement on some dimension of relevance. The representation step consists of the major statistical analyses. The analysis begins with construction from the sort information of an NxN (where N is the total number of statements) binary, symmetric matrix of similarities, SNxN for each participant. For any two items i and j, a 1 is placed in Sij if the two items were placed in the same pile by the participant, otherwise a 0 is entered (Weller and Romney, 1988, p. 22). The construction of this individual matrix is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The construction of the binary 0,1 similarity matrix, SNxN, for each sort in concept mapping.
The total NxN similarity matrix, TNxN is obtained by summing across the individual SNxN matrices. Thus, any cell in this matrix can take integer values between 0 and M (where M is the total number of people who sorted the statements); the value indicates the number of people who placed the i,j pair in the same pile. The total similarity matrix TNxN is analyzed using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis (Kruskal and Wish, 1978; Davison, 1983) with a two-dimensional solution. The solution is limited to two dimensions because, as Kruskal and Wish (1978) point out:
Since it is generally easier to work with two-dimensional configurations than with those involving more dimensions, ease of use considerations are also important for decisions about dimensionality. For example, when an MDS configuration is desired primarily as the foundation on which to display clustering results, then a two-dimensional configuration is far more useful than one involving three or more dimensions (p. 58).
The analysis yields a two-dimensional XNx2 configuration of the set of N statements based on the criterion that statements piled together most often are located more proximately in two-dimensional space while those piled together less frequently are further apart.
This two-dimensional configuration is the input for the hierarchical cluster analysis utilizing Ward's algorithm (Everitt, 1980) as the basis for defining a cluster. Using the MDS configuration as input to the cluster analysis in effect forces the cluster analysis to partition the MDS configuration into non-overlapping clusters in two-dimensional space. In the interpretation step, the participant group is guided by the facilitator through a structured process that familiarizes them with the various maps and enables them to attach meaningful substantive labels to various locations on the map. Finally, in the utilization step, the participants discuss specific ways the maps can be used to help address the original focus of the project.
Because the concept mapping process is so complex, it is difficult to conceive of a single overall reliability coefficient. For instance, it would be theoretically feasible to ask about the reliability of any of the six phases of the process independent of the others. Nevertheless, it is clear that the central product of the concept mapping process is the two-dimensional map itself and, consequently, efforts to address reliability are well-directed to the central phases of the analysis, the structuring and representation steps. In this paper, the focus is on methods for estimating the reliability of the sort data and of the two-dimensional MDS map that results.
Estimates of the Reliability of Concept Mapping
The key components of the concept mapping process available for estimating various reliabilities are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The key components in the concept mapping data and the related reliability estimates.
The figure assumes a hypothetical project involving ten participants (M=10), each of whom sorted and rated the set of N statements. We see that for each sort, there is a corresponding binary symmetric similarity matrix, SNxN. These are aggregated into the total matrix, TNxN. This total matrix is the input to the MDS analysis which yields a two-dimensional XNx2 configuration. The Euclidean distances (in two dimensions) between all pairs of statements can be computed directly from the two-dimensional matrix, yielding a distance matrix DNxN where:
The ratings are analyzed separate from the sort data, as indicated in the figure.
Although the assumptions underlying reliability theory for concept mapping are different from traditional reliability theory, the methods for estimating reliability would be familiar to traditionalists. Several common reliability estimators are considered below. From these, a subset set of estimators is selected that can readily be obtained from the data for any typical concept mapping project.
One common estimator of reliability is the test-retest correlation. Typically, respondent scores on successive administrations of a test are correlated to estimate the degree of consistency in repeated testings. In concept mapping, this could be accomplished by asking the same participants to sort the statements on two separate occasions. Two reliability coefficients could be computed. One would involve the correlation between the aggregated similarity matrix, TNxN (the input to MDS) on both occasions. The other would be the correlation between the two MDS maps that result (specifically, the correlation between the distances between all pairs of points on the two maps, DNxN). The test-retest correlation has several disadvantages as a reliability estimator in a concept mapping context. It assumes that participants do not change with respect to what is being measured (or change only in a linear fashion) between testings and that the first testing does not affect the response on the second. More practically, the test-retest method requires twice the data collection. Participants would usually need to be assembled on separate days, significantly increasing the costs and feasibility of a project. Although the test-retest reliability estimate should be used where practicable, it is not used here to estimate reliability.
A second traditional way to estimate reliability would be to divide the set of test items into two random subtests and compute the correlation for these across the participants. This "split half" reliability can also be accomplished for the concept mapping case. Here, one would divide the participant group randomly into two subgroups, labeled A and B. Separate similarity matrices (TA and TB) and MDS maps (XA and XB) can be computed for each subgroup, as shown in Figure 3. By correlating them, one can then estimate the split half reliability of the similarity matrix and of the map that results. The split half reliability has the advantage of being relatively easy to compute from any concept mapping data. Both split half reliabilities are studied here.
In traditional reliability estimation, Cronbach's alpha is often used and is considered equivalent to computing all possible split half reliabilities. This would clearly be superior to the simple split half estimator, but there is no known way to estimate alpha for the matrix data used in concept mapping. Even if one could accomplish this for the sort data, one would need to compute MDS maps for each potential split half in order to estimate the equivalent to Cronbach's alpha -- clearly a prohibitively time consuming proposition. For this reason, no Cronbach's alpha estimate of reliability is considered here.
Another traditional reliability estimate involves the degree to which each test item correlates with the total score across all items on the test. This average item-total reliability has an analogue in concept mapping. One can compute the correlation between each person's binary sort matrix, SNxN, and the total similarity matrix, TNxN, and between each person's binary sort matrix, SNxN, and the distances on the final map, DNxN. These will be labeled here the Average Individual-to-Total reliability and the Average Individual-to-Map reliability.
A final traditional reliability estimate is based on the average of the correlations among items on a scale, or the average interitem correlation. It is possible to perform an analogous analysis with concept mapping data, on both the sorting and rating data. These will be termed here the average Individual-to-Individual sort and the average Rating-to-Rating reliabilities.
Most of the estimation methods described above (except for test-retest and Cronbach's alpha) rely on calculations that are based on only part of the total available sample of participants. For instance, the split-half reliability has an effective sample size of one-half the total number of participants. The three averaged estimates are even worse off, relying on only a single individual or pair as the effective sample size for each element entered into the average. Since we know that reliability is affected by the number of items on a test (or persons in a concept mapping project), these correlations based on only part of the participant sample do not accurately reflect the correlational value we would expect for the entire participant sample. This is traditionally corrected for in reliability estimation by applying the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula (Nunnally, 1978, p. 211):
where:
rij = the correlation estimated from the data
k = N/n where N is the total sample size and n is the sample size on which rij is based
rkk = the estimated Spearman-Brown corrected reliability
In sum, there appear to be several reliability estimates that can be routinely constructed from any concept mapping data. All of them require use of the Spearman-Brown correction. They are:
1. The Split-Half Total matrix reliability, rSHT
2. The Split-Half Map reliability, rSHM
3. The Average Individual-to-Total Reliability, rIT.(k = N/1)
4. The Average Individual-to-Map Reliability, rIM.(k = N/1)
5. The Average Individual-to-Individual Sort Reliability, rII. (k = N/1)
6. The Average Rating-to-Rating Reliability, rRR.(k = N/1)
Method
Sample
Thirty-eight separate concept mapping projects conducted over the past two years constituted the sample for this reliability study. This is essentially exhaustive of the universe of all concept mapping projects conducted by the author over that time period. Almost all of the projects could be classified generally as in the area of social services research. Most (N=18) were in the field of mental health. Three were related to arts organization administration. There were two each in health and agriculture. Three were primarily focused on research methodology issues (such as the conceptualization of what is meant by measurement). There were 10 other studies that were classified generally as social services in nature. Procedure
All of the reliabilities calculated here are depicted graphically in Figure 3 above.
Split-Half Reliabilities. The set of sorts from each project was randomly divided into two halves (for odd-numbered participant groups, one group was randomly assigned one more person than the other). Separate concept maps were computed for each group. The total matrices, TA and TB, for each group were correlated and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to obtain rSHT. The Euclidean distances between all pairs of points on the two maps, DA and DB, were correlated and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to obtain rSHM.
Individual-to-Individual Sort Reliability. The SNxN matrices were correlated for all pairs of individuals. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rII.
Individual-to-Total Matrix Reliability. The SNxN sort matrix for each individual was correlated with the total matrix, TNxN. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rIT.
Individual-to-Map Reliability. The SNxN sort matrix for each individual was correlated with the Euclidean distances, DNxN. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rIM.
Average Inter-Sort Reliability. The correlation between the ratings for each pair of persons was computed. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rRR.
Results
Descriptive statistics for the thirty-eight concept mapping projects are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the number of statements, number of sorters, number of raters, and stress values for 38 concept mapping projects.
Number of Statements Number of Sorters Number of Raters
Stress Value
Number of Projects
38
37
37
33
Mean 83.84211 14.62162 13.94595 0.28527
Median 93.00000 14.00000 14.00000 0.29702
Minimum 39.00000 7.00000 6.00000 0.15526
Maximum 99.00000 32.00000 33.00000 0.35201
SD 17.99478 5.77038 5.69086 0.04360
On average, 83.8 statements were brainstormed across all projects, with a range from 39 to 99. Most projects achieved over 90 statements (median=93). There were an average of 14.62 sorters per project, very close to the typically recommended sample size of fifteen. The reason there are only 37 projects for the sorting is that two of the projects were related and used the same sort statements, with one of those doing only the ratings. Similarly, in one of the projects, no ratings were done. The last column shows that the average stress value across the projects was .285 (SD=.04). Stress is a statistic routinely reported for multidimensional scaling that reflects the goodness of fit of the map to the original dissimilarity matrix that served as input. A lower stress value implies a better fit. The multidimensional scaling literature suggests that a lower stress value is desired than is typically obtained in concept mapping. However, it must be remembered that the recommendations in the literature are typically based on experience with much more stable phenomena (e.g., physiological perception of color similarities), fewer entities, and more precise measurement methods (e.g., paired comparisons). The data summarized in Table 1 are important benchmarks that can act as reasonable standards for the level of stress that should be expected in typical field-based concept mapping projects.
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for the stress values for the sample projects and for their split half samples.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the stress values for the entire project and the split-half samples for 38 concept mapping projects.
Stress Value Stress 1 -
Split Half Stress 2 -
Split Half
Number of Projects
33
33
33
Mean 0.28527 0.30013 0.29987
Median 0.29702 0.31421 0.31082
Minimum 0.15526 0.19962 0.14875
Maximum 0.35201 0.34437 0.36855
SD 0.04360 0.03772 0.04654
The major value of this table is that it gives some indication of the effect of sample size (i.e., number of sorters) on final stress values. Somewhat surprisingly, the table suggests that stress values based on sample sizes half as large are nearly as good as the full-sample values, suggesting that even smaller samples of sorters may produce maps that fit almost as well as samples twice as large.
The estimates of reliability are reported in Table 3.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for reliability estimates for 38 concept mapping projects.
rII rRR rIT rIM rSHT rSHM
Number of Projects
33
37
33
33
33
33
Mean 0.81507 0.78374 0.92965 0.86371 0.83330 0.55172
Median 0.82060 0.82120 0.93070 0.86280 0.84888 0.55881
Minimum 0.67040 0.42700 0.88230 0.74030 0.72493 0.25948
Maximum 0.93400 0.93540 0.97370 0.95490 0.93269 0.90722
SD 0.07016 0.12125 0.02207 0.04771 0.05485 0.15579
Three of the coefficients (i.e., rII, rIT, and rSHT) utilize only the individual sort matrices and the sum of these. The average individual-to-individual sort reliability value (rII) was .815, the average individual-to-total matrix value (rIT) was .929, and the average split-half total matrix reliability (rSHT) was .833. The only reliability estimate that involved rating values (rRR) yielded an average of .78. It is worth noting that one would typically not expect that there would be as much consistency across a group of persons on the ratings as on sortings. Finally, there were only two reliability estimates that included information from the final map. The average value of the relationship between individuals' sorts and the final map configuration (rIM) was .863. The split-half reliability of the final maps (rSHM) had an average value of .55.
Table 4 shows the relationship between the number of statements and sorters, and the various reliabilities.
Table 4. Correlations between number of statements and number of sorters and the various reliabilities.
Number of Statements Number of Sorts
rII -0.06232 0.54577
rIT -0.00714 0.59122
rIM -0.15390 0.61201
rSHT -0.15483 0.54921
rSHM -0.07697 0.21373
The number of statements is largely uncorrelated with reliability, although all coefficients are slightly negative. On the other hand, the number of sorters is positively correlated with reliabilities. This suggests that having more sorters in a concept mapping project can improve the overall reliability of the results.
Finally, the intercorrelations among the five sort-related reliability estimates are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Correlations between different reliability estimates.
rII rIT rIM rSHT
rIT 0.94030
rIM 0.78976 0.90937
rSHT 0.91925 0.90301 0.77444
rSHM 0.48329 0.59313 0.68700 0.57188
The correlations are all significantly positive, with the lowest correlations between the split-half map reliabilities and all others.
Discussion
The results indicate that the concept mapping method, when examined across a wide range of projects, yields reliable results as estimated by a number of acceptable reliability indicators.
While all reliability estimates were strongly positive, the split half estimate of the relationship between maps was clearly lower than the rest. It is not surprising that this value is lower. A simple analogy might explain why this is so. Imagine that we had data on a multi-item scale and that we divided the sample of respondents randomly into two halves. If we compute any estimate of reliability of the raw data, it is bound to be higher than estimates of reliability based on analyses that process that data. For instance, if we applied the same regression model or factor analytic model to both random split half samples and correlated the results of these analyses (e.g., the predicted regression values or factor analysis inter-item matrix), they would almost certainly be lower than any reliability based only on the original raw data.
The reliability estimates reported here are all easily calculable from the raw data available from any concept mapping project. These estimates should be reported routinely in write-ups of concept mapping results.
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Ryan, L. and Pursley, L. (1992). Using concept mapping to compare organizational visions of multiple stakeholders. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
SenGupta, S. (1993). A mixed-method design for practical purposes: Combination of questionnaire(s), interviews, and concept mapping.Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, TX.
Shern, D.L. (1992). Documenting the adaptation of rehabilitation technology to a core urban, homeless population with psychiatric disabilities: A concept mapping approach. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Trochim, W. (1985). Pattern matching, validity, and conceptualization in program evaluation. Evaluation Review, 9, 5, 575-604.
Trochim, W. (1989a). An introduction to concept mapping for planning and evaluation. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 1-16.
Trochim, W. (1989b). Concept mapping: Soft science or hard art? Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 87-110.
Trochim, W. (1989c). Outcome pattern matching and program theory. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 4, 355-366.
Trochim, W. (1990). Pattern matching and program theory. In H.C. Chen (Ed.), Theory-Driven Evaluation. New Directions for Program Evaluation, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Trochim, W. and Cook, J. (1992). Pattern matching in theory-driven evaluation: A field example from psychiatric rehabilitation. in H. Chen and P.H. Rossi (Eds.) Using Theory to Improve Program and Policy Evaluations. Greenwood Press, New York, 49-69.
Trochim, W. and Linton, R. (1986). Conceptualization for evaluation and planning. Evaluation and Program Planning, 9, 289-308.
Trochim, W., Cook, J. and Setze, R. (in press). Using concept mapping to develop a conceptual framework of staff's views of a supported employment program for persons with severe mental illness. Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
Valentine, K. (1989). Contributions to the theory of care. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 17-24.
Valentine, K. (1992). Mapping the conceptual domain of provider and consumer expectations of inpatient mental health treatment: Wisconsin results. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Weller, S.C. and Romney, A.K. (1988). Systematic Data Collection. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
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William M.K. Trochim
Cornell University
DRAFT: Not for quotation or citation. Comments would be greatly appreciated.
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, Texas, November 6, 1993. This research was supported in part through NIMH Grant R01MH46712-01A1, William M.K. Trochim, Principal Investigator.
Abstract
Because of the growing interest in and use of the concept mapping methodology, it is important to define rigorous and feasible standards of quality. This paper addresses the issue of the reliability of concept mapping. Six different reliability coefficients that can easily be estimated from the data typically available from any concept mapping project were defined and estimated for 38 different concept mapping projects. Results indicate that the concept mapping process can be considered reliable according to generally-recognized standards for acceptable reliability levels. It is recommended that the reliabilities estimated here be routinely reported with concept mapping project results.
The Reliability of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a process that can be used to help a group describe its ideas on any topic of interest (Trochim, 1989a). The process typically requires the participants to brainstorm a large set of statements relevant to the topic of interest, individually sort these statements into piles of similar ones and rate each statement on some scale, and interpret the maps that result from the data analyses. The analyses typically include a two-dimensional multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the unstructured sort data, a hierarchical cluster analysis of the MDS coordinates, and the computation of average ratings for each statement and cluster of statements. The maps that result show the individual statements in two-dimensional (x,y) space with more similar statements located nearer each other, and show how the statements are grouped into clusters that partition the space on the map. Participants are led through a structured interpretation session designed to help them understand the maps and label them in a substantively meaningful way.
The concept mapping process as discussed here was first described by Trochim and Linton (1986). Trochim (1989a) delineates the process in detail and Trochim (1989b) presents a wide range of example projects. Concept mapping has received considerable use and appears to be growing in popularity. It has been used to address substantive issues in the social services (Galvin, 1989; Mannes, 1989), mental health (Cook, 1992; Kane, 1992; Lassegard, 1993; Marquart, 1988; Marquart, 1992; Marquart et al, 1993; Penney, 1992; Ryan and Pursley, 1992; Shern, 1992; Trochim, 1989a; Trochim and Cook, 1992; Trochim et al, in press; Valentine, 1992), health care (Valentine, 1989), education (Grayson, 1993; Kohler, 1992; Kohler, 1993), educational administration (Gurowitz et al, 1988), and theory development (Linton, 1989). Considerable methodological work on the concept mapping process and its potential utility has also been accomplished (Bragg and Grayson, 1993; Caracelli, 1989; Cooksy, 1989; Davis, 1989; Dumont, 1989; Grayson, 1992; Keith, 1989; Lassegard, 1992; Marquart, 1989; Mead and Bowers, 1992; Mercer, 1992; SenGupta, 1993; Trochim, 1985 , 1989c, 1990).
Given the broad and apparently increasing utilization of the concept mapping method, it is increasingly important that issues related to the quality of the process be investigated. In most social science research, the quality of the measurement is assessed through estimation of reliability and validity. This paper considers only the reliability of concept mapping.
The traditional theory of reliability typically applied in social research does not fit the concept mapping model well. That theory assumes that for each test item there is a correct answer that is known a priori. The performance of each individual is measured on each question and coded correct or incorrect. Data are typically stored in a rectangular matrix with the rows being persons and the columns test items. Reliability assessment focuses on the test questions or on the total score of the test. That is, we can meaningfully estimate the reliability of each test item, or of the total score.
Concept mapping involves a different emphasis altogether. There is no assumed correct answer or correct sort. Instead, it is assumed that there may be some normatively typical arrangement of the statements that is reflected imperfectly in the sorts of all members who come from the same relatively homogeneous (with respect to the construct of interest) cultural group. The emphasis in reliability assessment shifts from the item to the person. For purposes of reliability assessment, the structure of the data matrix is reversed, with persons as the columns and items (or pairs of items) as the rows. Reliability assessment focuses on the consistency across the assumed relatively homogeneous set of participants. In this sense, it is meaningful to speak of the reliability of the similarity matrix or the reliability of the map in concept mapping, but not of the reliability of individual statements.
This paper presents several ways of estimating the reliability or consistency of concept mapping. The various estimates of reliability are illustrated on data from a large heterogeneous group of prior concept mapping projects. The distributions of reliability estimates across many projects provide realistic estimates of the level of reliability one might expect in typical field applications of concept mapping.
The Concept Mapping Process
Traditional presentations of concept mapping describe it as a six-step process as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The six steps in the concept mapping process.
During the preparation step, the focus for the concept mapping is operationalized, participants are selected, and a schedule is developed. The generation step is usually accomplished through a simple brainstorming (Osborn, 1948) of a large set of statements related to the focus. In the structuring step, each participant completes an unstructured sorting (Rosenberg and Kim, 1975; Weller and Romney, 1988) of the statements into piles of similar ones, and rates each statement on some dimension of relevance. The representation step consists of the major statistical analyses. The analysis begins with construction from the sort information of an NxN (where N is the total number of statements) binary, symmetric matrix of similarities, SNxN for each participant. For any two items i and j, a 1 is placed in Sij if the two items were placed in the same pile by the participant, otherwise a 0 is entered (Weller and Romney, 1988, p. 22). The construction of this individual matrix is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The construction of the binary 0,1 similarity matrix, SNxN, for each sort in concept mapping.
The total NxN similarity matrix, TNxN is obtained by summing across the individual SNxN matrices. Thus, any cell in this matrix can take integer values between 0 and M (where M is the total number of people who sorted the statements); the value indicates the number of people who placed the i,j pair in the same pile. The total similarity matrix TNxN is analyzed using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis (Kruskal and Wish, 1978; Davison, 1983) with a two-dimensional solution. The solution is limited to two dimensions because, as Kruskal and Wish (1978) point out:
Since it is generally easier to work with two-dimensional configurations than with those involving more dimensions, ease of use considerations are also important for decisions about dimensionality. For example, when an MDS configuration is desired primarily as the foundation on which to display clustering results, then a two-dimensional configuration is far more useful than one involving three or more dimensions (p. 58).
The analysis yields a two-dimensional XNx2 configuration of the set of N statements based on the criterion that statements piled together most often are located more proximately in two-dimensional space while those piled together less frequently are further apart.
This two-dimensional configuration is the input for the hierarchical cluster analysis utilizing Ward's algorithm (Everitt, 1980) as the basis for defining a cluster. Using the MDS configuration as input to the cluster analysis in effect forces the cluster analysis to partition the MDS configuration into non-overlapping clusters in two-dimensional space. In the interpretation step, the participant group is guided by the facilitator through a structured process that familiarizes them with the various maps and enables them to attach meaningful substantive labels to various locations on the map. Finally, in the utilization step, the participants discuss specific ways the maps can be used to help address the original focus of the project.
Because the concept mapping process is so complex, it is difficult to conceive of a single overall reliability coefficient. For instance, it would be theoretically feasible to ask about the reliability of any of the six phases of the process independent of the others. Nevertheless, it is clear that the central product of the concept mapping process is the two-dimensional map itself and, consequently, efforts to address reliability are well-directed to the central phases of the analysis, the structuring and representation steps. In this paper, the focus is on methods for estimating the reliability of the sort data and of the two-dimensional MDS map that results.
Estimates of the Reliability of Concept Mapping
The key components of the concept mapping process available for estimating various reliabilities are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The key components in the concept mapping data and the related reliability estimates.
The figure assumes a hypothetical project involving ten participants (M=10), each of whom sorted and rated the set of N statements. We see that for each sort, there is a corresponding binary symmetric similarity matrix, SNxN. These are aggregated into the total matrix, TNxN. This total matrix is the input to the MDS analysis which yields a two-dimensional XNx2 configuration. The Euclidean distances (in two dimensions) between all pairs of statements can be computed directly from the two-dimensional matrix, yielding a distance matrix DNxN where:
The ratings are analyzed separate from the sort data, as indicated in the figure.
Although the assumptions underlying reliability theory for concept mapping are different from traditional reliability theory, the methods for estimating reliability would be familiar to traditionalists. Several common reliability estimators are considered below. From these, a subset set of estimators is selected that can readily be obtained from the data for any typical concept mapping project.
One common estimator of reliability is the test-retest correlation. Typically, respondent scores on successive administrations of a test are correlated to estimate the degree of consistency in repeated testings. In concept mapping, this could be accomplished by asking the same participants to sort the statements on two separate occasions. Two reliability coefficients could be computed. One would involve the correlation between the aggregated similarity matrix, TNxN (the input to MDS) on both occasions. The other would be the correlation between the two MDS maps that result (specifically, the correlation between the distances between all pairs of points on the two maps, DNxN). The test-retest correlation has several disadvantages as a reliability estimator in a concept mapping context. It assumes that participants do not change with respect to what is being measured (or change only in a linear fashion) between testings and that the first testing does not affect the response on the second. More practically, the test-retest method requires twice the data collection. Participants would usually need to be assembled on separate days, significantly increasing the costs and feasibility of a project. Although the test-retest reliability estimate should be used where practicable, it is not used here to estimate reliability.
A second traditional way to estimate reliability would be to divide the set of test items into two random subtests and compute the correlation for these across the participants. This "split half" reliability can also be accomplished for the concept mapping case. Here, one would divide the participant group randomly into two subgroups, labeled A and B. Separate similarity matrices (TA and TB) and MDS maps (XA and XB) can be computed for each subgroup, as shown in Figure 3. By correlating them, one can then estimate the split half reliability of the similarity matrix and of the map that results. The split half reliability has the advantage of being relatively easy to compute from any concept mapping data. Both split half reliabilities are studied here.
In traditional reliability estimation, Cronbach's alpha is often used and is considered equivalent to computing all possible split half reliabilities. This would clearly be superior to the simple split half estimator, but there is no known way to estimate alpha for the matrix data used in concept mapping. Even if one could accomplish this for the sort data, one would need to compute MDS maps for each potential split half in order to estimate the equivalent to Cronbach's alpha -- clearly a prohibitively time consuming proposition. For this reason, no Cronbach's alpha estimate of reliability is considered here.
Another traditional reliability estimate involves the degree to which each test item correlates with the total score across all items on the test. This average item-total reliability has an analogue in concept mapping. One can compute the correlation between each person's binary sort matrix, SNxN, and the total similarity matrix, TNxN, and between each person's binary sort matrix, SNxN, and the distances on the final map, DNxN. These will be labeled here the Average Individual-to-Total reliability and the Average Individual-to-Map reliability.
A final traditional reliability estimate is based on the average of the correlations among items on a scale, or the average interitem correlation. It is possible to perform an analogous analysis with concept mapping data, on both the sorting and rating data. These will be termed here the average Individual-to-Individual sort and the average Rating-to-Rating reliabilities.
Most of the estimation methods described above (except for test-retest and Cronbach's alpha) rely on calculations that are based on only part of the total available sample of participants. For instance, the split-half reliability has an effective sample size of one-half the total number of participants. The three averaged estimates are even worse off, relying on only a single individual or pair as the effective sample size for each element entered into the average. Since we know that reliability is affected by the number of items on a test (or persons in a concept mapping project), these correlations based on only part of the participant sample do not accurately reflect the correlational value we would expect for the entire participant sample. This is traditionally corrected for in reliability estimation by applying the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula (Nunnally, 1978, p. 211):
where:
rij = the correlation estimated from the data
k = N/n where N is the total sample size and n is the sample size on which rij is based
rkk = the estimated Spearman-Brown corrected reliability
In sum, there appear to be several reliability estimates that can be routinely constructed from any concept mapping data. All of them require use of the Spearman-Brown correction. They are:
1. The Split-Half Total matrix reliability, rSHT
2. The Split-Half Map reliability, rSHM
3. The Average Individual-to-Total Reliability, rIT.(k = N/1)
4. The Average Individual-to-Map Reliability, rIM.(k = N/1)
5. The Average Individual-to-Individual Sort Reliability, rII. (k = N/1)
6. The Average Rating-to-Rating Reliability, rRR.(k = N/1)
Method
Sample
Thirty-eight separate concept mapping projects conducted over the past two years constituted the sample for this reliability study. This is essentially exhaustive of the universe of all concept mapping projects conducted by the author over that time period. Almost all of the projects could be classified generally as in the area of social services research. Most (N=18) were in the field of mental health. Three were related to arts organization administration. There were two each in health and agriculture. Three were primarily focused on research methodology issues (such as the conceptualization of what is meant by measurement). There were 10 other studies that were classified generally as social services in nature. Procedure
All of the reliabilities calculated here are depicted graphically in Figure 3 above.
Split-Half Reliabilities. The set of sorts from each project was randomly divided into two halves (for odd-numbered participant groups, one group was randomly assigned one more person than the other). Separate concept maps were computed for each group. The total matrices, TA and TB, for each group were correlated and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to obtain rSHT. The Euclidean distances between all pairs of points on the two maps, DA and DB, were correlated and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to obtain rSHM.
Individual-to-Individual Sort Reliability. The SNxN matrices were correlated for all pairs of individuals. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rII.
Individual-to-Total Matrix Reliability. The SNxN sort matrix for each individual was correlated with the total matrix, TNxN. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rIT.
Individual-to-Map Reliability. The SNxN sort matrix for each individual was correlated with the Euclidean distances, DNxN. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rIM.
Average Inter-Sort Reliability. The correlation between the ratings for each pair of persons was computed. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rRR.
Results
Descriptive statistics for the thirty-eight concept mapping projects are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the number of statements, number of sorters, number of raters, and stress values for 38 concept mapping projects.
Number of Statements Number of Sorters Number of Raters
Stress Value
Number of Projects
38
37
37
33
Mean 83.84211 14.62162 13.94595 0.28527
Median 93.00000 14.00000 14.00000 0.29702
Minimum 39.00000 7.00000 6.00000 0.15526
Maximum 99.00000 32.00000 33.00000 0.35201
SD 17.99478 5.77038 5.69086 0.04360
On average, 83.8 statements were brainstormed across all projects, with a range from 39 to 99. Most projects achieved over 90 statements (median=93). There were an average of 14.62 sorters per project, very close to the typically recommended sample size of fifteen. The reason there are only 37 projects for the sorting is that two of the projects were related and used the same sort statements, with one of those doing only the ratings. Similarly, in one of the projects, no ratings were done. The last column shows that the average stress value across the projects was .285 (SD=.04). Stress is a statistic routinely reported for multidimensional scaling that reflects the goodness of fit of the map to the original dissimilarity matrix that served as input. A lower stress value implies a better fit. The multidimensional scaling literature suggests that a lower stress value is desired than is typically obtained in concept mapping. However, it must be remembered that the recommendations in the literature are typically based on experience with much more stable phenomena (e.g., physiological perception of color similarities), fewer entities, and more precise measurement methods (e.g., paired comparisons). The data summarized in Table 1 are important benchmarks that can act as reasonable standards for the level of stress that should be expected in typical field-based concept mapping projects.
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for the stress values for the sample projects and for their split half samples.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the stress values for the entire project and the split-half samples for 38 concept mapping projects.
Stress Value Stress 1 -
Split Half Stress 2 -
Split Half
Number of Projects
33
33
33
Mean 0.28527 0.30013 0.29987
Median 0.29702 0.31421 0.31082
Minimum 0.15526 0.19962 0.14875
Maximum 0.35201 0.34437 0.36855
SD 0.04360 0.03772 0.04654
The major value of this table is that it gives some indication of the effect of sample size (i.e., number of sorters) on final stress values. Somewhat surprisingly, the table suggests that stress values based on sample sizes half as large are nearly as good as the full-sample values, suggesting that even smaller samples of sorters may produce maps that fit almost as well as samples twice as large.
The estimates of reliability are reported in Table 3.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for reliability estimates for 38 concept mapping projects.
rII rRR rIT rIM rSHT rSHM
Number of Projects
33
37
33
33
33
33
Mean 0.81507 0.78374 0.92965 0.86371 0.83330 0.55172
Median 0.82060 0.82120 0.93070 0.86280 0.84888 0.55881
Minimum 0.67040 0.42700 0.88230 0.74030 0.72493 0.25948
Maximum 0.93400 0.93540 0.97370 0.95490 0.93269 0.90722
SD 0.07016 0.12125 0.02207 0.04771 0.05485 0.15579
Three of the coefficients (i.e., rII, rIT, and rSHT) utilize only the individual sort matrices and the sum of these. The average individual-to-individual sort reliability value (rII) was .815, the average individual-to-total matrix value (rIT) was .929, and the average split-half total matrix reliability (rSHT) was .833. The only reliability estimate that involved rating values (rRR) yielded an average of .78. It is worth noting that one would typically not expect that there would be as much consistency across a group of persons on the ratings as on sortings. Finally, there were only two reliability estimates that included information from the final map. The average value of the relationship between individuals' sorts and the final map configuration (rIM) was .863. The split-half reliability of the final maps (rSHM) had an average value of .55.
Table 4 shows the relationship between the number of statements and sorters, and the various reliabilities.
Table 4. Correlations between number of statements and number of sorters and the various reliabilities.
Number of Statements Number of Sorts
rII -0.06232 0.54577
rIT -0.00714 0.59122
rIM -0.15390 0.61201
rSHT -0.15483 0.54921
rSHM -0.07697 0.21373
The number of statements is largely uncorrelated with reliability, although all coefficients are slightly negative. On the other hand, the number of sorters is positively correlated with reliabilities. This suggests that having more sorters in a concept mapping project can improve the overall reliability of the results.
Finally, the intercorrelations among the five sort-related reliability estimates are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Correlations between different reliability estimates.
rII rIT rIM rSHT
rIT 0.94030
rIM 0.78976 0.90937
rSHT 0.91925 0.90301 0.77444
rSHM 0.48329 0.59313 0.68700 0.57188
The correlations are all significantly positive, with the lowest correlations between the split-half map reliabilities and all others.
Discussion
The results indicate that the concept mapping method, when examined across a wide range of projects, yields reliable results as estimated by a number of acceptable reliability indicators.
While all reliability estimates were strongly positive, the split half estimate of the relationship between maps was clearly lower than the rest. It is not surprising that this value is lower. A simple analogy might explain why this is so. Imagine that we had data on a multi-item scale and that we divided the sample of respondents randomly into two halves. If we compute any estimate of reliability of the raw data, it is bound to be higher than estimates of reliability based on analyses that process that data. For instance, if we applied the same regression model or factor analytic model to both random split half samples and correlated the results of these analyses (e.g., the predicted regression values or factor analysis inter-item matrix), they would almost certainly be lower than any reliability based only on the original raw data.
The reliability estimates reported here are all easily calculable from the raw data available from any concept mapping project. These estimates should be reported routinely in write-ups of concept mapping results.
References
Bragg, L.R. and Grayson, T.E. (1993). Reaching consensus on outcomes: Lessons learned about concept mapping. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, TX.
Caracelli, V. (1989). Structured conceptualization: A framework for interpreting evaluation results. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 45-52.
Cook, J. (1992). Modeling staff perceptions of a mibile job support program for persons with severe mental illness. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Cooksy, L. (1989). In the eye of the beholder: Relational and hierarchical structures in conceptualization. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 59-66.
Davis, J. (1989). Construct validity in measurement: A pattern matching approach. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 31-36.
Dumont, J. (1989). Validity of multidimensional scaling in the context of structured conceptualization. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 81-86.
Davison, M.L. (1983). Multidimensional scaling. New York, John Wiley and Sons.
Everitt, B. (1980). Cluster Analysis. 2nd Edition, New York, NY: Halsted Press, A Division of John Wiley and Sons.
Galvin, P.F. (1989). Concept mapping for planning and evaluation of a Big Brother/Big Sister program. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 53-58.
Grayson, T.E. (1993). Empowering key stakeholders in the strategic planning and development of an alternative school program for youth at risk of school behavior. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, TX.
Grayson, T.E. (1992). Practical issues in implementing and utilizing concept mapping. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Gurowitz, W.D., Trochim, W. and Kramer, H. (1988). A process for planning. The Journal of the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 25, 4, 226-235.
Kane, T.J. (1992). Using concept mapping to identify provider and consumer issues regarding housing for persons with severe mental illness. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Keith, D. (1989). Refining concept maps: Methodological issues and an example. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 75-80.
Kohler, P.D. (1992). Services to students with disabilities in postsecondary education settings: Identifying program outcomes. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Kohler, P.D. (1993). Serving students with disabilities in postsecondary education settings: Using program outcomes for planning, evaluation and empowerment.Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, TX.
Kruskal, J.B. and Wish, M. (1978). Multidimensional Scaling. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Lassegard, E. (1992). Assessing the reliability of the concept mapping process. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Lassegard, E. (1993). Conceptualization of consumer needs for mental health services.Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, TX.
Linton, R. (1989). Conceptualizing feminism: Clarifying social science concepts. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 25-30.
Mannes, M. (1989). Using concept mapping for planning the implementation of a social technology. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 67-74.
Marquart, J.M. (1988). A pattern matching approach to link program theory and evaluation data: The case of employer-sponsored child care. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Marquart, J.M. (1989). A pattern matching approach to assess the construct validity of an evaluation instrument. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 37-44.
Marquart, J.M. (1992). Developing quality in mental health services: Perspectives of administrators, clinicians, and consumers. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Marquart, J.M., Pollak, L. and Bickman, L. (1993). Quality in intake assessment and case management: Perspectives of administrators, clinicians and consumers. In R. Friedman et al. (Eds.), A system of care for children's mental health: Organizing the research base. Tampa: Florida Mental Health Institute, University of South Florida.
Mead, J.P. and Bowers, T.J. (1992). Using concept mapping in formative evaluations. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Mercer, M.L. (1992). Brainstorming issues in the concept mapping process. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. (2nd. Ed.). New York, McGraw Hill.
Osborn, A.F. (1948). Your Creative Power. New York, NY: Charles Scribner.
Penney, N.E. (1992). Mapping the conceptual domain of provider and consumer expectations of inpatient mental health treatment: New York Results. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Romney, A.K., Weller, S.C. and Batchelder, W.H. (1986). Culture as consensus: A theory of culture and informant accuracy. American Anthropologist, 88, 2, 313-338.
Rosenberg, S. and Kim, M.P. (1975). The method of sorting as a data gathering procedure in multivariate research. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 10, 489-502.
Ryan, L. and Pursley, L. (1992). Using concept mapping to compare organizational visions of multiple stakeholders. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
SenGupta, S. (1993). A mixed-method design for practical purposes: Combination of questionnaire(s), interviews, and concept mapping.Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, TX.
Shern, D.L. (1992). Documenting the adaptation of rehabilitation technology to a core urban, homeless population with psychiatric disabilities: A concept mapping approach. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Trochim, W. (1985). Pattern matching, validity, and conceptualization in program evaluation. Evaluation Review, 9, 5, 575-604.
Trochim, W. (1989a). An introduction to concept mapping for planning and evaluation. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 1-16.
Trochim, W. (1989b). Concept mapping: Soft science or hard art? Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 1, 87-110.
Trochim, W. (1989c). Outcome pattern matching and program theory. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12, 4, 355-366.
Trochim, W. (1990). Pattern matching and program theory. In H.C. Chen (Ed.), Theory-Driven Evaluation. New Directions for Program Evaluation, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Trochim, W. and Cook, J. (1992). Pattern matching in theory-driven evaluation: A field example from psychiatric rehabilitation. in H. Chen and P.H. Rossi (Eds.) Using Theory to Improve Program and Policy Evaluations. Greenwood Press, New York, 49-69.
Trochim, W. and Linton, R. (1986). Conceptualization for evaluation and planning. Evaluation and Program Planning, 9, 289-308.
Trochim, W., Cook, J. and Setze, R. (in press). Using concept mapping to develop a conceptual framework of staff's views of a supported employment program for persons with severe mental illness. Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
Valentine, K. (1989). Contributions to the theory of care. Evaluation and Program Planning. 12, 1, 17-24.
Valentine, K. (1992). Mapping the conceptual domain of provider and consumer expectations of inpatient mental health treatment: Wisconsin results. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Seattle, WA.
Weller, S.C. and Romney, A.K. (1988). Systematic Data Collection. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
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Concept Mapping- General-[Encyclopedia]- November 12, 2009
Descriptions, definitions, synonyms, organizer terms, types of
A graphic organizer is an instructional tool used to illustrate a student or class's prior knowledge about a topic or section of text
"Semantic Map, structured overview, web, concept map, semantic organizer, story map, graphic organizer...No matter what the special name, a graphic organizer is a VISUAL representation of knowledge. It is a way of structuring information, of arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels" (Bromley, Irwin-DeVitis,& Modlo, p. 6). Graphic organizers are one way of using Advance organizers.
Types of Graphic Organizers
Cause-Effect Chart
Classification Chart
Concept Web
KWL Chart
Matrix
Mind Map
SQ3R Chart
Sequence/Flow Chart
Spider Map
T-Chart
Thinking Tree
Time Line Chart
Two Story Map
Venn Diagram
In Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement, by Robert J. Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack, it is suggested that all graphic organizers can be placed into six common patterns:
Descriptive Patterns
Time-Sequence Patterns
Process/Cause-Effect Patterns
Episode Patterns
Generalization/Principle Patterns
Concept Patterns
Marzano feels that graphic organizers are the "most common way to help students generate nonlinguistic representation" (Marzano 75). Marzano also cites Educational Technology Research and Development by Gerlic & Jausovec (1999), where the authors write that "engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic representations stimulates and increases activity in th brain" (73). ""
See Links (below) for Printable Graphic Organizers, Makers, and Index of Graphic Organizers
Application in classrooms and similar settings
"Graphic organizers have been applied across a range of curriculum subject areas. Although reading is by far the most well studied application, science, social studies, language arts, and math are additional content areas that are represented in the research base on graphic organizers." (Hall & Strangman, 2005)
Point of Implementation
Before a new learning situation to set the stage, address prior knowledge, develop background or essential learning and guide thinking.
During a new learning situation to categorize and/or organize information, raise questions for consideration, predict solutions or conclusions;
After a new learning situation, to confirm or reject prior knowledge, relate new information to what was already known, extend new learning to other situations ;
With material already learned, a simple way to organize or outline learning or ideas;
When developing a piece of writing, as an effective means to organize thoughts or ideas.
To develop criticism or feedback during peer evaluation of projects or writing assignments.
Evidence of effectiveness
The studies reviewed by Tracey Hall and Niclole Strangman (2005) showed the use of graphic organizers improving comprehension and more significantly improving vocabulary knowledge. Hall and Strangman (2005) cite Moore and Readence (1984) to indicate that the use of graphic organizers has a greater effect when used after the learning material rather that before.
Relatively new is the research on computer-based graphic organizers, for example the use of the the software, Inspiration. A listing of studies supporting the effectiveness of graphic organizers on student learning is available from Inspiration, Visual Learning Research and an evaluation by the Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration, Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research (July 2003) also supports visual learning techniques supporting student learning and performance.
Critics and their rationale
While Graphic Organizers can be a huge help to visual learners, they can often be overused in the classroom and retard the learning of other students in the classroom. The visual representation of the information can take more time to construct and also lack the depth of organizational systems. Advanced students can become bored of what feels like excessive time wasted on making ideas easier to read when they already understood the concept. Forcing all students to use graphic organizers can repress the free thinking and creative of many students. It should be seen as an aid, not a foundation.
Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
Good teaching strategies are good for everyone!
Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
Testimonial by B. Moore
I have used graphic organizers to help me teach Jr. High Geography. Graphic organizers give students a purpose to their reading. Students who struggle in school often need this purpose to motivate themselves for the activity. I use Venn Diagrams the most in my classroom. It is a very easy format that works well when comparing and contrasting two countries, continents, landforms, culture, etc. These diagrams also are good prewriting activities for students. I have also used Inspiration to make concept maps for my students. This allows them to see how things in class are connected.
Testimonal by C.McCulley I have used graphic organizers and concept maps with my art students, especially during art critique. I find it helps them organize their thoughts before they speak about their artwork. We specifically focus on four things in an art critique Describe, Analyze, Discuss, and Interpret. I think having a visual model or image helps them to visual see connections between the artwork and the objectives of the assignment.
Testimonial by J. Vallowe
I have used concept maps in my biology classes. At first students need a lot of support in the construction of their maps. However, they become more proficient through practice and use of these maps. Students develop better relationships between concepts as evidenced in their verbal and written explanations. -- Janet Vallowe
Testimonial by H. Savoca
Using graphic organizers promotes organization of text, whether it be in reading or writing. Graphic organizers foster metacognition and offer techniques for sorting information. These templates help readers dissect information. They often incorporate signaling techniques or fit predetermined, common modalities of text prganiztaion/structure. I use graphic oragnizers in both writing and reading instruction in my classroom. Currently, I am using a "pillar" that guides students through writing expository essays, as well as a summary graphic oragnizer which allows my students to identify main ideas vs. insignificant details in reading passages, while enhancing retelling skills. I applaud the use of graphic organizers and find them to be an effective means of promoting learning in my classroom. --Heidi M. Savoca
Testimonial by N. Frick
Using graphic organizers has really helped me with my guided reading instruction. I have found that it gives students a focal point. As they are reading and thinking about what they have read, graphic organizers give students and easy way to organize their thoughts. I have also used a 4-square graphic organizer for writing expository and persuasive papers. The 4-square really helps struggling writers to get their thoughts in order, and it gives the better writers a good place to start from. With proper instruction and teacher modeling, graphic organizers are great resources for both students and teachers.\
Testimonial by N. Meeker
I use graphic organizeers before every writing assignment that I give my sixth graders. I have just received Inspiration and will use it next year with every student. I think it will be a major help for those students who have difficulty organizing their thoughts. Inspiration will much more quickly show them the possibilities. I also taught public speaking for many years and this program would have been beneficial in those classes also. We also use graphic organizers throughout the study of novels, beginning with KWL. we are currently studying Tom Sawyer and students are finding out that they cannot depend on the Hollywood version- that some of the things they thought they knew about the story are quite different in Mark Twain's original story. N. Meeker
Testimonial by D. Heater For part of a project I added an essay to a recent test. The coop teacher that I was working with was not sure her students would be able to write an essay as they had not needed to do so all year. We spent some time using graphic organizers to help them prepare first listing all the pertinant information and then putting it into a Venn diagram. On the test itself we gave them a chart to fill out prior to writing the essay. to this teachers surprise a vast majority of the students completed the essay, and did so well!
An excellent way to integrate technology into the classroom, related to graphic organizers, is to use Inspiration or Kidspiration software. Although the software is not free, it is very beneficial for the development of writing and higher order thinking. A nice feature of the software is the ability to switch between chart and outline formats. If an chart (graphic organizer) is edited the changes are automatically made in the outline and vice-versa. This allows students to use a graphic organizer to plan a story and then view the outline to begin writing.--Benish 22:34, 30 Apr 2005 (CDT)
Testimonial by Bonnie I have used graphic organizers for years. I find them highly effective. They are a good use of time and the students walk away from my instruction with information that is well organized and easily read. I teach science but much of my instruction begins with teaching my students to read and make sense of scientific information.
Testimonial by K. Kleckauskas:
I frequently use graphic organizers in both my language arts and Spanish classes. There are many effective ways of using graphic organizers. Of course, graphic organizers are great tools to help students organize their thoughts in preparation for a writing assignment, but they can also be excellent tools for students comparing and contrasting two things, such as a book that was read and the movie version. Usually, this can be done by using a Venn Diagram or "Y" chart. In Spanish, I have used a Venn Diagram for students to compare and contrast Mexican Independence Day to Independence Day here in the U.S. Rather than simply reading about the differences, this gives students an engaging way to sort through the information pertaining to both holidays and to visualize the similarities and differences.
One of the more interesting graphic organizers I have seen recently is in the area of social studies. A teacher at University Laboratory High School (Urbana) has developed a program that uses flowcharts to show the "flow" of history. World history at Uni High is now taught this way to all students, and american history is being considered. Not only do the students learn the cause and effect of historical events, but they see interesting things like cycles, branches and consolidations. See Chris Butler's Flow of History - M. Cornell
As a special educator, my students use a graphic organizer when preparing to write any type of writing assignment. They did not initially want to use it, but since the implementation of them, they don't want to stop using them. I think it helps them get their thoughts down in an organized manner and gives them the structure that wouldn't just come to them if they were just to begin writing. I have seen a huge improvement in my kids writing since graphic organizers were implemented! Gay Cabutti
Teaching special education math I have created simple graphic organizers and flow charts that have helped students remember what steps go in order to solve different types of problems. The students seem to better understand the material and comprehend the lessons better with the charts. One of the lessons that I use this with is adding and subtracting positive negative integers. With the many different rules, the flow chart helps students ask questions and follow the flow chart to figure out what they need to do. C. Grice
I use graphic organizers often with my elementary students. When beginning the writing process I think it is important to allow students time to organize their thoughts before the writing begins. Often I will use a computer program such as Kidspiration to help students stay organized. Students can make a web of their ideas and with a press of a button that web can be turned into an outline. Students can also expand on that outline and then easily transfer their thoughts to paper. The students and teachers both love this program. S. Nottoli
In my English Department we have adopted a graphic organizer approach that allows students to compile their argument for their essay before actually writing the essay. The graphic organizer is set up with a long horizontal box at the top where their argument or Claim will go. Under this horizontal box are three even rows, each row designated for a separate Reason for their argument. At the top of each row is a box with "Reason" in it. From there, moving down, below the Reason they will have to supply their Evidence, then an Explanation, then a Warrant. There are two spaces under each reason for Evidence and Explanation because we want them to show a pattern of evidence rather than just one example to support each individual reason. This graphic organizer literally maps out their essay for them, allowing them to see their argument, along with the various parts of the argument, before committing it to the essay. What usually happens in the construction of this organizer is students find weaknesses or flaws in their logic and this organizer helps to ensure their argument maintains focus and logic throughout. ~ B. Chambers
I have begun using graphic organizers in the math classroom as well. It enables geometry students to layout a clear thought process of all of the things which need to take place in a proof before trying to determine their order. By doing this some students are also finding where they may need an additional step. --M. Pule
References and other links of interest
Links
Graphic Organizers - Five main types, and examples of each.
Tools for Reading, Writing, & Thinking This is a fantastic resource for graphic organizers. The graphic organizers are broken down by subject (reading or writing) and has a description of each document. You can also be directly linked to organizers that complement reading strategies, as well as rubrics for various writing and speaking activities.
Online version of Chapter 6 - Nonlinguistic Representation in Robert Marzano's Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement
Resources useful in writing - including graphic organizers, mind mapping, and concept mapping.
Graphic Organizer Makers
Graphic Organizers in General
Index of Graphic Organizers
Types of Graphic Organizers
Printable Graphic Organizers
NCREL Graphic Organizers
References
Bromley, K., Irwin-DeVitis, & Modlo, M. (1995). Graphic Organizers. Scholastic Professional Books: New York.
Cruikshank, Dona. "Module 6 Graphic Organizers." LCE-Learner Centered Education. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://www.learnercentereded.org/Courses/RSL/Module6.htm
Hall, Tracey and Strangman, Nicole. "Graphic Organizers." National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum Publications. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from Center for Applied Special Technology Universal Design for Learning http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_go.html
Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration. (July 2003). Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:juJ2GVrOWa8J:www.engagingminds.com/inspiration/Kidspiration_Inspiration/fullrearch.pdf+evidence+%22graphic+organizers%22+effective+learning&hl=en&client=safari
Marzano, Robert, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack. Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2001.
Retrieved from "http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Graphic_organizer"
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A graphic organizer is an instructional tool used to illustrate a student or class's prior knowledge about a topic or section of text
"Semantic Map, structured overview, web, concept map, semantic organizer, story map, graphic organizer...No matter what the special name, a graphic organizer is a VISUAL representation of knowledge. It is a way of structuring information, of arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels" (Bromley, Irwin-DeVitis,& Modlo, p. 6). Graphic organizers are one way of using Advance organizers.
Types of Graphic Organizers
Cause-Effect Chart
Classification Chart
Concept Web
KWL Chart
Matrix
Mind Map
SQ3R Chart
Sequence/Flow Chart
Spider Map
T-Chart
Thinking Tree
Time Line Chart
Two Story Map
Venn Diagram
In Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement, by Robert J. Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack, it is suggested that all graphic organizers can be placed into six common patterns:
Descriptive Patterns
Time-Sequence Patterns
Process/Cause-Effect Patterns
Episode Patterns
Generalization/Principle Patterns
Concept Patterns
Marzano feels that graphic organizers are the "most common way to help students generate nonlinguistic representation" (Marzano 75). Marzano also cites Educational Technology Research and Development by Gerlic & Jausovec (1999), where the authors write that "engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic representations stimulates and increases activity in th brain" (73). ""
See Links (below) for Printable Graphic Organizers, Makers, and Index of Graphic Organizers
Application in classrooms and similar settings
"Graphic organizers have been applied across a range of curriculum subject areas. Although reading is by far the most well studied application, science, social studies, language arts, and math are additional content areas that are represented in the research base on graphic organizers." (Hall & Strangman, 2005)
Point of Implementation
Before a new learning situation to set the stage, address prior knowledge, develop background or essential learning and guide thinking.
During a new learning situation to categorize and/or organize information, raise questions for consideration, predict solutions or conclusions;
After a new learning situation, to confirm or reject prior knowledge, relate new information to what was already known, extend new learning to other situations ;
With material already learned, a simple way to organize or outline learning or ideas;
When developing a piece of writing, as an effective means to organize thoughts or ideas.
To develop criticism or feedback during peer evaluation of projects or writing assignments.
Evidence of effectiveness
The studies reviewed by Tracey Hall and Niclole Strangman (2005) showed the use of graphic organizers improving comprehension and more significantly improving vocabulary knowledge. Hall and Strangman (2005) cite Moore and Readence (1984) to indicate that the use of graphic organizers has a greater effect when used after the learning material rather that before.
Relatively new is the research on computer-based graphic organizers, for example the use of the the software, Inspiration. A listing of studies supporting the effectiveness of graphic organizers on student learning is available from Inspiration, Visual Learning Research and an evaluation by the Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration, Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research (July 2003) also supports visual learning techniques supporting student learning and performance.
Critics and their rationale
While Graphic Organizers can be a huge help to visual learners, they can often be overused in the classroom and retard the learning of other students in the classroom. The visual representation of the information can take more time to construct and also lack the depth of organizational systems. Advanced students can become bored of what feels like excessive time wasted on making ideas easier to read when they already understood the concept. Forcing all students to use graphic organizers can repress the free thinking and creative of many students. It should be seen as an aid, not a foundation.
Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
Good teaching strategies are good for everyone!
Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
Testimonial by B. Moore
I have used graphic organizers to help me teach Jr. High Geography. Graphic organizers give students a purpose to their reading. Students who struggle in school often need this purpose to motivate themselves for the activity. I use Venn Diagrams the most in my classroom. It is a very easy format that works well when comparing and contrasting two countries, continents, landforms, culture, etc. These diagrams also are good prewriting activities for students. I have also used Inspiration to make concept maps for my students. This allows them to see how things in class are connected.
Testimonal by C.McCulley I have used graphic organizers and concept maps with my art students, especially during art critique. I find it helps them organize their thoughts before they speak about their artwork. We specifically focus on four things in an art critique Describe, Analyze, Discuss, and Interpret. I think having a visual model or image helps them to visual see connections between the artwork and the objectives of the assignment.
Testimonial by J. Vallowe
I have used concept maps in my biology classes. At first students need a lot of support in the construction of their maps. However, they become more proficient through practice and use of these maps. Students develop better relationships between concepts as evidenced in their verbal and written explanations. -- Janet Vallowe
Testimonial by H. Savoca
Using graphic organizers promotes organization of text, whether it be in reading or writing. Graphic organizers foster metacognition and offer techniques for sorting information. These templates help readers dissect information. They often incorporate signaling techniques or fit predetermined, common modalities of text prganiztaion/structure. I use graphic oragnizers in both writing and reading instruction in my classroom. Currently, I am using a "pillar" that guides students through writing expository essays, as well as a summary graphic oragnizer which allows my students to identify main ideas vs. insignificant details in reading passages, while enhancing retelling skills. I applaud the use of graphic organizers and find them to be an effective means of promoting learning in my classroom. --Heidi M. Savoca
Testimonial by N. Frick
Using graphic organizers has really helped me with my guided reading instruction. I have found that it gives students a focal point. As they are reading and thinking about what they have read, graphic organizers give students and easy way to organize their thoughts. I have also used a 4-square graphic organizer for writing expository and persuasive papers. The 4-square really helps struggling writers to get their thoughts in order, and it gives the better writers a good place to start from. With proper instruction and teacher modeling, graphic organizers are great resources for both students and teachers.\
Testimonial by N. Meeker
I use graphic organizeers before every writing assignment that I give my sixth graders. I have just received Inspiration and will use it next year with every student. I think it will be a major help for those students who have difficulty organizing their thoughts. Inspiration will much more quickly show them the possibilities. I also taught public speaking for many years and this program would have been beneficial in those classes also. We also use graphic organizers throughout the study of novels, beginning with KWL. we are currently studying Tom Sawyer and students are finding out that they cannot depend on the Hollywood version- that some of the things they thought they knew about the story are quite different in Mark Twain's original story. N. Meeker
Testimonial by D. Heater For part of a project I added an essay to a recent test. The coop teacher that I was working with was not sure her students would be able to write an essay as they had not needed to do so all year. We spent some time using graphic organizers to help them prepare first listing all the pertinant information and then putting it into a Venn diagram. On the test itself we gave them a chart to fill out prior to writing the essay. to this teachers surprise a vast majority of the students completed the essay, and did so well!
An excellent way to integrate technology into the classroom, related to graphic organizers, is to use Inspiration or Kidspiration software. Although the software is not free, it is very beneficial for the development of writing and higher order thinking. A nice feature of the software is the ability to switch between chart and outline formats. If an chart (graphic organizer) is edited the changes are automatically made in the outline and vice-versa. This allows students to use a graphic organizer to plan a story and then view the outline to begin writing.--Benish 22:34, 30 Apr 2005 (CDT)
Testimonial by Bonnie I have used graphic organizers for years. I find them highly effective. They are a good use of time and the students walk away from my instruction with information that is well organized and easily read. I teach science but much of my instruction begins with teaching my students to read and make sense of scientific information.
Testimonial by K. Kleckauskas:
I frequently use graphic organizers in both my language arts and Spanish classes. There are many effective ways of using graphic organizers. Of course, graphic organizers are great tools to help students organize their thoughts in preparation for a writing assignment, but they can also be excellent tools for students comparing and contrasting two things, such as a book that was read and the movie version. Usually, this can be done by using a Venn Diagram or "Y" chart. In Spanish, I have used a Venn Diagram for students to compare and contrast Mexican Independence Day to Independence Day here in the U.S. Rather than simply reading about the differences, this gives students an engaging way to sort through the information pertaining to both holidays and to visualize the similarities and differences.
One of the more interesting graphic organizers I have seen recently is in the area of social studies. A teacher at University Laboratory High School (Urbana) has developed a program that uses flowcharts to show the "flow" of history. World history at Uni High is now taught this way to all students, and american history is being considered. Not only do the students learn the cause and effect of historical events, but they see interesting things like cycles, branches and consolidations. See Chris Butler's Flow of History - M. Cornell
As a special educator, my students use a graphic organizer when preparing to write any type of writing assignment. They did not initially want to use it, but since the implementation of them, they don't want to stop using them. I think it helps them get their thoughts down in an organized manner and gives them the structure that wouldn't just come to them if they were just to begin writing. I have seen a huge improvement in my kids writing since graphic organizers were implemented! Gay Cabutti
Teaching special education math I have created simple graphic organizers and flow charts that have helped students remember what steps go in order to solve different types of problems. The students seem to better understand the material and comprehend the lessons better with the charts. One of the lessons that I use this with is adding and subtracting positive negative integers. With the many different rules, the flow chart helps students ask questions and follow the flow chart to figure out what they need to do. C. Grice
I use graphic organizers often with my elementary students. When beginning the writing process I think it is important to allow students time to organize their thoughts before the writing begins. Often I will use a computer program such as Kidspiration to help students stay organized. Students can make a web of their ideas and with a press of a button that web can be turned into an outline. Students can also expand on that outline and then easily transfer their thoughts to paper. The students and teachers both love this program. S. Nottoli
In my English Department we have adopted a graphic organizer approach that allows students to compile their argument for their essay before actually writing the essay. The graphic organizer is set up with a long horizontal box at the top where their argument or Claim will go. Under this horizontal box are three even rows, each row designated for a separate Reason for their argument. At the top of each row is a box with "Reason" in it. From there, moving down, below the Reason they will have to supply their Evidence, then an Explanation, then a Warrant. There are two spaces under each reason for Evidence and Explanation because we want them to show a pattern of evidence rather than just one example to support each individual reason. This graphic organizer literally maps out their essay for them, allowing them to see their argument, along with the various parts of the argument, before committing it to the essay. What usually happens in the construction of this organizer is students find weaknesses or flaws in their logic and this organizer helps to ensure their argument maintains focus and logic throughout. ~ B. Chambers
I have begun using graphic organizers in the math classroom as well. It enables geometry students to layout a clear thought process of all of the things which need to take place in a proof before trying to determine their order. By doing this some students are also finding where they may need an additional step. --M. Pule
References and other links of interest
Links
Graphic Organizers - Five main types, and examples of each.
Tools for Reading, Writing, & Thinking This is a fantastic resource for graphic organizers. The graphic organizers are broken down by subject (reading or writing) and has a description of each document. You can also be directly linked to organizers that complement reading strategies, as well as rubrics for various writing and speaking activities.
Online version of Chapter 6 - Nonlinguistic Representation in Robert Marzano's Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement
Resources useful in writing - including graphic organizers, mind mapping, and concept mapping.
Graphic Organizer Makers
Graphic Organizers in General
Index of Graphic Organizers
Types of Graphic Organizers
Printable Graphic Organizers
NCREL Graphic Organizers
References
Bromley, K., Irwin-DeVitis, & Modlo, M. (1995). Graphic Organizers. Scholastic Professional Books: New York.
Cruikshank, Dona. "Module 6 Graphic Organizers." LCE-Learner Centered Education. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://www.learnercentereded.org/Courses/RSL/Module6.htm
Hall, Tracey and Strangman, Nicole. "Graphic Organizers." National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum Publications. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from Center for Applied Special Technology Universal Design for Learning http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_go.html
Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration. (July 2003). Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:juJ2GVrOWa8J:www.engagingminds.com/inspiration/Kidspiration_Inspiration/fullrearch.pdf+evidence+%22graphic+organizers%22+effective+learning&hl=en&client=safari
Marzano, Robert, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack. Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2001.
Retrieved from "http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Graphic_organizer"
Categories: EPSY400 ClassroomLearning | EPSY490 ClassroomLearningAndManagement(CTER)ViewsPage Discussion View source History Personal toolsLog in Navigation
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Saturday, November 7, 2009
Structuration Theory/Adaptive - [Margith Strand 2008] BUILD
Adaptive Structuration Theory
role of information technologies in organization change
University of Twente/November 7, 2009/Google Search origination
History and Orientation
Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. This theory is formulated as “the production and reproduction of the social systems through members’ use of rules and resources in interaction”. DeSanctis and Poole adapted Giddens' theory to study the interaction of groups and organizations with information technology, and called it Adaptive Structuration Theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities. These perceptions can vary widely across groups. These perceptions influence the way how technology is used and hence mediate its impact on group outcomes.
Core Assumptions and Statements
AST is a viable approach for studying the role of advanced information technologies in organization change. AST examines the change process from two vantage points 1) the types of structures that are provided by the advanced technologies and 2) the structures that actually emerge in human action as people interact with these technologies.
1. Structuration Theory, deals with the evolution and development of groups and organizations.
2. The theory views groups or organizations as systems with ("observable patterns of relationships and communicative interaction among people creating structures").
3. Systems are produced by actions of people creating structures (sets of rules and resources).
4. Systems and structures exist in a dual relationship with each others such that they tend to produce and reproduce each other in an ongoing cycle. This is referred to as the "structuration process."
5. The structuration process can be very stable, or it can change substantial over time.
6. It is useful to consider groups and organizations from a structuration perspective because doing so: (a) helps one understand the relative balance in the deterministic influences and willful choices that reveal groups' unique identities; (b) makes clearer than other perspectives the evolutionary character of groups and organizations; and (c) suggests possibilities for how members may be able to exercise more influence than they otherwise think themselves capable of.
Conceptual Model
See Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, p. 132.
Favorite Methods
To be added.
Scope and Application
The AST could be used to analyze the advent of various innovations such as the printed press, electricity, telegraph, mass transpirations, radio, telephone, TV, the Internet, etc., and show how the structures of these innovations penetrated the respective societies, influencing them, and how the social structures of those societies in turn influenced and modified innovations' original intent. In conclusion AST's appropriation process might be a good model to analyze the utilization and penetration of new media technologies in our society.
Example
In this example two groups are compared that used the Group Decision Support System (GDSS) for prioritizing projects for organizational investment. A written transcript and an audio tape produced qualitative summary. Also quantitative results were obtained which led to the following conclusions. Both groups had similar inputs to group interaction. The sources of structure and the group’s internal system were essentially the same in each group, except that group 1 had a member who was forceful in attempting to direct others and was often met with resistance. Group 2 spent much more time than group 1 defining the meaning of the system features and how they should be used relative to the task at hand; also group 2 had relatively few disagreements about appropriation or unfaithful appropriation. In group 2 conflict was confined to critical work on differences rather than the escalated argument present in group 1. This example shows how the Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) can help to understand advanced technology in group interactions. Although the same technology was introduced to both groups, the effects were not consistent due to differences in each group’s appropriation moves.
References
Key publications
Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, 121-147
Maznevski, M. L. & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging Space Over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and Effectiveness. Organization Science. 11, 473-492
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1985). Group Decision-making as a structurational process. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 71, 74-102.
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1986). A structurational approach to theory-building in group decision-making research. In R. Y. Hirokawa & M. S. Poole (Eds.),
Communication and group decision making (pp. 2437-264). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Seibold, D. (1998). Jurors¹ intuitive rules for deliberation: a structural approach to communication in jury decision making. Communication Monographs, 65, p. 287-307.
Anderson, R. & Ross, V. (1998). Questions of Communication: A practical introduction to theory (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin¹s Press, not in.
Cragan, J. F., & Shields, D.C. (1998). Understanding communication theory: The communicative forces for human action. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 229-230.
Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, p. 209-210, & 224-233.
Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 256.
Infante, D. A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, p. 180 & 348-351.
Littlejohn, S.W. (1999). Theories of human communication (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 319-322.
West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2000). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, p. 209-223.
Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, not in.
J.M. Caroll (Ed.) Scenario-based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. Wiley, NY, 1995.
W. Chin, A. Gopal, W. Salisbury. Advancing the theory of Adaptive Structuration: the development of a scale to measure faithfulness of Appropriation. Information Systems Research 8 (1997) 342-367.
G. DeSanctis, M.S. Poole. Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive Structuration Theory, Organization Science 5 (1994) 121-147.
A. Giddens. The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984.
A. Giddens. New rules of sociological method: a positive critique of interpretive sociologies, 2nd ed., Polity Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993.
J. Greenbaum and M. Kyng (Eds). Design at Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J., 1991.
P. Grefen, R. Wieringa. Subsystem Design Guidelines for Extensible General-Purpose Software. 3rd International Software Architecture Workshop (ISAW3); Orlando, Florida, 1998, 49-52.
P. Grefen, K. Sikkel, R. Wieringa. Two Case Studies of Subsystem Design for Extensible General-Purpose Software. Report 98-14, Center for Telematics and Information Technology, Enschede, Twente.
J.A. Hughes, D. Randall, D. Shapiro. Faltering from Ethnography to Design. Proc. ACM Conf. on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, 1992, 115-122.
C. Korunka, A. Weiss, & S. Zauchner. An interview study of 'continuous' implementations of information technology, Behaviour & information technology 16 (1997) 3-16.
P.B. Kruchten. The 4+1 View Model of Architecture. IEEE Software, Nov. 1995, 42-50.
V.L. O’Day, D.G. Bobrow, M. Shirley. The Social-Technical Design Circle. ACM Conf. on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW’96), Cambridge, Mass., 1996, 160-169.
W.J. Orlikowski. Improvising Organizational Transformation Over Time: A Situated Change Perspective. Information Systems Research 7 (1996) 63-92.
Dynamic Object Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) Reference Manual, Version 2.1 Quality Systems and Software ltd., Oxford, UK.
L.A. Suchman. Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1987.
A. Sutcliffe and S. Minocha. Linking Business Modelling to Socio-Technical System Design. CREWS-Report 98-43, Centre for HCI Design, City University, London.
L. Tornatzky and M. Fleischer. The process of Technological Innovation. Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1992.
See also Organizational Communication
Study choice
▪ Bsc Programmes
▪ Msc Programmes
▪ Majors / Minors
▪ Student & Education
▪ Student Union
▪ International Office
Education
▪ Behavioural Sciences BS
▪ Management and Governance
▪ Engineering Technology
▪ Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science
▪ Science and Technology
Research
▪ CTIT Centre for Telematics and Information Technology
▪ IBR Institute for Behavioural Research
▪ IGS Institute for Governance Studies
▪ IMPACT Institute of Mechanics, Processes and Control , Twente
▪ MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
▪ MIRA Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine
Valorization
role of information technologies in organization change
University of Twente/November 7, 2009/Google Search origination
History and Orientation
Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. This theory is formulated as “the production and reproduction of the social systems through members’ use of rules and resources in interaction”. DeSanctis and Poole adapted Giddens' theory to study the interaction of groups and organizations with information technology, and called it Adaptive Structuration Theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities. These perceptions can vary widely across groups. These perceptions influence the way how technology is used and hence mediate its impact on group outcomes.
Core Assumptions and Statements
AST is a viable approach for studying the role of advanced information technologies in organization change. AST examines the change process from two vantage points 1) the types of structures that are provided by the advanced technologies and 2) the structures that actually emerge in human action as people interact with these technologies.
1. Structuration Theory, deals with the evolution and development of groups and organizations.
2. The theory views groups or organizations as systems with ("observable patterns of relationships and communicative interaction among people creating structures").
3. Systems are produced by actions of people creating structures (sets of rules and resources).
4. Systems and structures exist in a dual relationship with each others such that they tend to produce and reproduce each other in an ongoing cycle. This is referred to as the "structuration process."
5. The structuration process can be very stable, or it can change substantial over time.
6. It is useful to consider groups and organizations from a structuration perspective because doing so: (a) helps one understand the relative balance in the deterministic influences and willful choices that reveal groups' unique identities; (b) makes clearer than other perspectives the evolutionary character of groups and organizations; and (c) suggests possibilities for how members may be able to exercise more influence than they otherwise think themselves capable of.
Conceptual Model
See Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, p. 132.
Favorite Methods
To be added.
Scope and Application
The AST could be used to analyze the advent of various innovations such as the printed press, electricity, telegraph, mass transpirations, radio, telephone, TV, the Internet, etc., and show how the structures of these innovations penetrated the respective societies, influencing them, and how the social structures of those societies in turn influenced and modified innovations' original intent. In conclusion AST's appropriation process might be a good model to analyze the utilization and penetration of new media technologies in our society.
Example
In this example two groups are compared that used the Group Decision Support System (GDSS) for prioritizing projects for organizational investment. A written transcript and an audio tape produced qualitative summary. Also quantitative results were obtained which led to the following conclusions. Both groups had similar inputs to group interaction. The sources of structure and the group’s internal system were essentially the same in each group, except that group 1 had a member who was forceful in attempting to direct others and was often met with resistance. Group 2 spent much more time than group 1 defining the meaning of the system features and how they should be used relative to the task at hand; also group 2 had relatively few disagreements about appropriation or unfaithful appropriation. In group 2 conflict was confined to critical work on differences rather than the escalated argument present in group 1. This example shows how the Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) can help to understand advanced technology in group interactions. Although the same technology was introduced to both groups, the effects were not consistent due to differences in each group’s appropriation moves.
References
Key publications
Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, 121-147
Maznevski, M. L. & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging Space Over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and Effectiveness. Organization Science. 11, 473-492
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1985). Group Decision-making as a structurational process. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 71, 74-102.
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1986). A structurational approach to theory-building in group decision-making research. In R. Y. Hirokawa & M. S. Poole (Eds.),
Communication and group decision making (pp. 2437-264). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Seibold, D. (1998). Jurors¹ intuitive rules for deliberation: a structural approach to communication in jury decision making. Communication Monographs, 65, p. 287-307.
Anderson, R. & Ross, V. (1998). Questions of Communication: A practical introduction to theory (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin¹s Press, not in.
Cragan, J. F., & Shields, D.C. (1998). Understanding communication theory: The communicative forces for human action. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 229-230.
Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, p. 209-210, & 224-233.
Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 256.
Infante, D. A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, p. 180 & 348-351.
Littlejohn, S.W. (1999). Theories of human communication (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 319-322.
West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2000). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, p. 209-223.
Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, not in.
J.M. Caroll (Ed.) Scenario-based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. Wiley, NY, 1995.
W. Chin, A. Gopal, W. Salisbury. Advancing the theory of Adaptive Structuration: the development of a scale to measure faithfulness of Appropriation. Information Systems Research 8 (1997) 342-367.
G. DeSanctis, M.S. Poole. Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive Structuration Theory, Organization Science 5 (1994) 121-147.
A. Giddens. The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984.
A. Giddens. New rules of sociological method: a positive critique of interpretive sociologies, 2nd ed., Polity Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993.
J. Greenbaum and M. Kyng (Eds). Design at Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J., 1991.
P. Grefen, R. Wieringa. Subsystem Design Guidelines for Extensible General-Purpose Software. 3rd International Software Architecture Workshop (ISAW3); Orlando, Florida, 1998, 49-52.
P. Grefen, K. Sikkel, R. Wieringa. Two Case Studies of Subsystem Design for Extensible General-Purpose Software. Report 98-14, Center for Telematics and Information Technology, Enschede, Twente.
J.A. Hughes, D. Randall, D. Shapiro. Faltering from Ethnography to Design. Proc. ACM Conf. on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, 1992, 115-122.
C. Korunka, A. Weiss, & S. Zauchner. An interview study of 'continuous' implementations of information technology, Behaviour & information technology 16 (1997) 3-16.
P.B. Kruchten. The 4+1 View Model of Architecture. IEEE Software, Nov. 1995, 42-50.
V.L. O’Day, D.G. Bobrow, M. Shirley. The Social-Technical Design Circle. ACM Conf. on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW’96), Cambridge, Mass., 1996, 160-169.
W.J. Orlikowski. Improvising Organizational Transformation Over Time: A Situated Change Perspective. Information Systems Research 7 (1996) 63-92.
Dynamic Object Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) Reference Manual, Version 2.1 Quality Systems and Software ltd., Oxford, UK.
L.A. Suchman. Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1987.
A. Sutcliffe and S. Minocha. Linking Business Modelling to Socio-Technical System Design. CREWS-Report 98-43, Centre for HCI Design, City University, London.
L. Tornatzky and M. Fleischer. The process of Technological Innovation. Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1992.
See also Organizational Communication
Study choice
▪ Bsc Programmes
▪ Msc Programmes
▪ Majors / Minors
▪ Student & Education
▪ Student Union
▪ International Office
Education
▪ Behavioural Sciences BS
▪ Management and Governance
▪ Engineering Technology
▪ Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science
▪ Science and Technology
Research
▪ CTIT Centre for Telematics and Information Technology
▪ IBR Institute for Behavioural Research
▪ IGS Institute for Governance Studies
▪ IMPACT Institute of Mechanics, Processes and Control , Twente
▪ MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
▪ MIRA Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine
Valorization
Saturday, October 31, 2009
Federal Communications Commission and Native American Policy
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www.fcc.gov/indians/ - Cached - Similar -
Promoting Telecommunications Services Among Indians
FCC Logo - Return to the FCC Home Page ... Native American Initiatives ...
www.fcc.gov/wcb/tapd/indians/
FCC Tribal Initiatives - Telehealth and Telemedicine Internet ...
FCC Policy Statement · Financial Assistance · Tribal Lands & Auctions ...
www.fcc.gov/indians/internetresources/tt.html
More results from fcc.gov »
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Digital Communication/Native American/Divide (great)
http://www.evanscraig.com/Community/Reports/NativeDigitalDivide.html
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http://www.hks.harvard.edu/hpaied/res_all.htm
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http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/075.html
Tuesday, October 27, 2009
Saturday, October 24, 2009
NEW THOUGHT: Quimby related works./
Related Quimby work...plagiarism question concerning Mary Baker Eddy.
NEW THOUGHT...
NEW THOUGHT DEFINED
by Abel L. Allen
"O we can wait no longer,
We too take ship, O soul;
Joyous, we too launch out on trackless seas,
Fearless, for unknown shores, on waves of ecstasy to sail, Amid the wafting winds,
Chanting our chant of pleasant exploration.
O my brave soul,
O, farthcr, farther sail,
O daring joy, but safe, are they not, all the seas of God?
O, farther. farther sail."
WALT WHITMAN.
NEW THOUGHT is not, as many believe, a name or expression employed to define any fixed system of thought, philosophy, or religion, but is a term used to convey the idea of growing or developing thought. In considering this subject, the word "New" should be duly and freely emphasized, because the expression "New Thought" relates only to what is new and progressive.
It would be a misuse of terms to apply the expression "New Thought" to a system of thought, because when thought is molded and formed into a system, it ceases to be new. When a system of thought has reached maturity and ceases to grow, expand, and develop, it can no longer be defined by the word "New." It follows, therefore, as a necessary conclusion, that no system of new thought, or no system of thought defined by that expression, now exists or ever can exist. "New Thought" is the result or creation of perpetually advancing mind. The growing mind is not content with the past or its achievements. It is not satisfied with systems of philosophy or religion originating in other ages and handed down through succeeding generations. They do not satisfy the wants of the mind. Systems do not grow, mind develops. It wants something larger and better; it wants improvement, growth, and development. It is merely the logical and natural effort of the mind in its struggle for advancement; it is following its basic and innherent law.
As the growing mind applies thought to whatever enters into consciousness, it gains new and enlarged conceptions and, therefore, grows, and what it thinks is new. New Thought has been defined as the latest product of growing mind. A distinguished writer has characterized New Thought as an attitude of mind and not a cult. Those who grasp the true meaning and spirit of New Thought, or, as it is sometimes called, progressive or unfolding thought, do not conceive that a finished or completed system of thought, either philosophical or religious, is a possibility. All systems of thought change with the flight of time. Decay follows growth. The philosophies and religions of today differ from those of yesterday, and those of tomorrow will be unlike those of today. History alone demonstrates the truth of this statement. This conclusion is inevitable also from the very laws that govern man's growth and existence.
Man's body is not the only result of the processes of evolution, growth, and development, but his mind is likewise the product of the same great law. Man is an evolved and evolving being, physically, mentally, and spiritually. Change and growth are the silent mandates of divinity. The eternal current ever moves onward. We do not reckon with all of nature's forces. Back of all, unseen yet all powerful, is the one universal law or cosmic urge, forever pushing and projecting man forward into higher physical, mental, and spiritual development.
Through the principle of evolution, physical man was brought to his present state of development. By the same principle has he come to his present mental and spiritual condition. It is a principle operating throughout the universe. Evolution is a movement from the lower to the higher, from the simple to the complex, from the inferior to the superior. How can there be a fixed system of thought, a complete philosophy, a perfect theology, or a defined religion? For as man grows mentally and spiritually he moves away from such limitations. As his mental and spiritual visions expand, the very laws of his being lead him to higher and still higher conceptions of philosophical and religious truth. "Through spiritual evolution are we led to God."
Every system of philosophy or religion is the result of an evolutionary process, the product of the human mind and understanding. When thought changes, when the mind develops, when the understanding is enlarged, philosophies and religions must likewise change. This is a self-evident truth. Were it otherwise, systems of thought, philosophies, and religions would be greater than the minds that created them and launched them upon the world -- the things created would be greater than their creators. Were it not so, systems that have no inherent power of growth would become greater than man, whose very law is growth.
Moreover, fixed systems of thought, either philosophical or religious, are impossible, because they are not the same to any two persons but convey different meanings to each individual. No two persons think alike, or have the same conception or understanding of any important subject, least of all of a philosophical or religious subject. No two individuals are alike or think alike. Duplicates have never been discovered in all the broad domain of nature. Scientists tell us that even the molecules of which our bodies are composed differ one from the other.
"No two men in creation think alike,
No two men in creation look alike, No two men in creation are alike,
No worlds or suns or heavens, but are distinct and wear a separate beauty.''
No individual can convey his thoughts, ideas, and impressions entire to another. Language, either written or spoken, is but a symbol, and at best an imperfect vehicle to convey thought. The meaning of truth is deflected in its transmission. "Thought is deeper than speech; feeling deeper than thought; souls to souls can never teach what to themselves is taught." The mental and spiritual visions of man differ as the stars differ in magnitude. The same light does not shine with equal brilliancy on the pathway of each individual. What is light to one, may be a shadow to another.
Nor are our ideas changeless and fixed. Our thoughts, conceptions, and understandings change with the advancing years, as the soul receives new influx of light. As each morning bathes the earth in new light, so each returning day and every recurring season bring new meanings and understandings to the soul.
The greatest gift from God to man is a growing mind, one that expands from day to day as the light of truth breaks upon it. Were it otherwise, were our ideas fixed and changeless, life would be intolerable and existence a sterile waste. It is the new conception that thrills the soul and broadens the understanding, as the influx of new life brings physical health and growth.
In the search for truth each ultimate fact becomes a cause, a starting-point for the discovery of more truth. Every attainment is the beginning of the next. "Every end is the beginning." The discovery of a law of nature is only the forerunner of a more universal law. Thus in the search for truth the endless tide of progression rolls on, forever conveying to man broader conceptions of truth and carrying him into a higher realization of his relationship with divinity.
As man renews his mind and reaches out for larger conceptions of truth, his understanding is enlarged, he gains new viewpoints, his expanded thought is translated and externalized into life, he grows, he advances, he comes into a closer union with God.
Thought is not final. What we last think may be our best thought, but it is not our ultimate though. It is only the foregleams of greater thought -- we may not encompass the whole truth, but we can enlarge our conceptions of truth and thus bring ourselves nearer the reality. We all live, move and have our being in an atmosphere of truth; truth is only assimilated by the individual. It is not susceptible of monopoly or systematization. It is not encompassed by institutions, but its living spirit is present in every manifested form and object of nature.
We hear much at times about systems, established religions, and settled creeds. Every institution insists on laying its foundation on a dogma. It has been well said that when a church is built over truth, truth flies out at the window. Every creed and every dogma offered to man undertake to show man's true relationship to God. The major premise of every dogma rests upon an idea of God, and yet no two persons can be found with the same ideals and conceptions of God. Man's idea of God is but an image of himself. The major premise of every creed is the conception some man had of God. To talk about settled creeds, the indisputable presumption must be indulged, that all other men have the same conception of God. To have a finished system of thought or a definite creed respecting man's relations to God presupposes a perfect and complete knowledge and understanding of that relation, which is beyond man's comprehension in his present state of development. When he has attained the mental and spiritual growth necessary to comprehend that relationship in its fullness and entirety, he will possess all knowledge and all wisdom, he will be omniscient.
It took the Christian Church until the fifth century to formulate its creeds, and yet for fourteen centuries it has been striving to settie them and mold them into an acceptable system. Has it accomplished it? Are its adherents any nearer an agreement? It is no nearer the coveted goal than it was fourteen hundred years ago. It is creed against creed, dogma against dogma, and their adherents still continue to look outward for truth.
Man has caught only a few rays from the great light of truth. Even the agencies of external nature transcend and baffle our understanding. We use electricity, it is in our bodies, we see its manifestations, we harness it, we regulate it, but we know not what it is. How light reaches the earth is a puzzle to the understanding. Because we do not understand these familiar agencies, the meaning of nature's symbols, must we relinquish all efforts to discover their meaning and to find the laws that govern them? Must we desist in our search for truth?
Science is a search for the secrets of nature. It is an attempt to find the laws governing the universe. The laws of the universe are the laws of God. Science, then, in its broadest aspect is a search for the knowledge of God. As man delves more deeply into the secrets of nature, the mysteries of the universe, his spiritual visions will expand and he will have broader and more comprehensive conceptions of God. Yet we are told that religion must be let alone; that creeds and theologies must not be disturbed, that they are not the subject of inquiry. How futile the attempt to set bounds to the processes of thought; why should not man seek for a better religion as he struggles for better government? Thought was the first step toward civil liberty. Thought is the first step toward the soul's liberty.
Truth is the understanding of the principles underlying the universe. Truth is as illimitable and boundless as the universe itself. Principles and laws are changeless, but our understanding of them changes as our minds gain new conceptions of truth and as they grow and develop. Only as the mind dwells on principles can it advance to a larger understanding of truth and higher conceptions of life. Principles are the landmarks to which all things are tied. When man departs from them he enters the jungle of uncertainty and confusion. To gain higher conceptions of the principles and laws underlying the universe is the real work of man. As he comes into an enlarged understanding of these principles, he directs the current of his life in accordance therewith. He grows into a closer harmony with nature, and enters a richer and more satisfying field of experience.
A moral and religious life must be a growing life, an advancing life, a life positively and constantly constructive. Man is either progressing or receding; spiritually and mentally he cannot stand still. All nature, with her actions and reactions, proclaims this great truth in every moment of life.
All useful discoveries in science have been the result of progressive and continued thought, thought applied to the discovery of the secrets of nature. Each discovery has been a stepping-stone to the next. The discovery of each law became a light for the discovery of more laws. Each discovery in nature is a benefit to the race, a step forward, and enlarges man's understanding of God.
Man can grow into a knowledge of his relationship with God and reach out toward the divine goal, only as he renews his mind, only as he enlarges his conception of what is within his consciousness, only as he presses forward into a higher spiritual and mental development.
Why should not new conceptions be applied to religion as well as governments? Religion relates to man's life and destiny: Government regulates man's relation with his fellow-man. Governments have existed as long as religion. They both sprang into existence with the dawn of reason. They traveled side by side down the ages. They have changed as man has progressed in civilization.
We do not yet concede the existence of a perfect government. The model government is not yet in sight. The struggle to improve government goes on as relentlessly as ever before in history. The rights of man forever assert themselves. They have been improved and secured only as he created new ideals of government, only as he applied new thoughts and new conceptions to existing governments.
The creeds which attempt to set bounds to religious thought, which endeavor to define man's conceptions of God, were given to the world when scientific thinking was unknown and by men whose conceptions of nature were no better than idle superstitions. The formulators of the creeds, in their blind endeavor to set up a system founded on the oriental allegory of the Garden of Eden, apparently did not know that truth has no terminals and cannot be defined or circumscribed. If they had looked into the great laboratory of nature and given thought and study to her processes, they might have there read that nature tells no falsehoods and that her very law is growth, development, and eternal progress. They might hug the delusion that creeds are static, that they are fixed and final, bur they could find nothing in nature remotely to hint at limitation or set bounds to her modifying processes. Change is written everywhere in her symbols. Her pulsations of life growth and decay, the morning and evening, the return of the seasons, all bespeak eternal change. There are no fixtures in all her domain. She has her seed-time and harvest, her summer and winter, her heat and cold. Her pendulum always swings.
Everything vibrates and oscillates through the broad stretches of infinity. Since motion produces change, everything in nature is passing through perpetual change.
Let us apply the analogies of nature to man, for is man not a part of nature? The physical man is changing as the moments speed away. Scientists at one time said our bodies were entirely renewed once in seven years. Now they have reduced the time to twelve months or less. Man is constantly putting off the old and putting on the new, but nature ever tends toward perfection. From the amoeba to man was a long and tedious struggle, but it marks the developing and perfecting laws of nature. Her movements were ever from the lower to the higher, by the ceaseless and tireless processes of evolution, to the highly complex and individualized man, conscious of his own personality and existence.
We recognize man as a co-worker with nature, and his right to assist her in her efforts toward perfection. He applies thought to her processes, and with her aid brings the flower, the fruit, the nut, and the animal to perfection. Is not nature a part of God? Are not these symbols through which God finds expression and speaks to man? Why not Burbank religions, creeds, and theologies, as well as the fruits and products of the earth?
When man is a co-worker with nature he is a co-worker with God; he applies thought to the processes and laws of nature, and behold she smiles back with fatness and plenty. Then let us, with a sublime courage and kindly spirit, turn the God-given mind in each to higher ideas of God, and God will smile back with prophetic glimpses of the eternal peace and beauty of true religion.
All thought is new. What we know, what we understand, we do not think about. It is only the new that creates interest or enthusiasm. It alone awakens the mind and soul to activity and effort. The soul is always thrilled with the reception of new truth. Without enthusiasm nothing great was ever accomplished. It has ever been the propelling force of man in every important and momentous undertaking. We instinctively turn from the old to the new. It is the law of mind, it is nature's method, it is God's plan of teaching man to grow.
Emerson said, "What is the ground of this uneasiness of ours, of this old discontent? What is this universal sense of want and ignorance, but the fine innuendo by which the great soul makes its enormous claim?" Progress is the law of the soul. Evermore the mind stretches forth toward the infinite, to grasp and reduce to understanding her mysteries, her wanders, and her secrets. To bind it to a fixed creed, a defined religion or system of thought, is as impossible as to pluck the Pleiades from the galaxy of the stars. The mind that can flash its thoughts across billions of miles from star to star in the hundredth part of a second, as the scientists tell us is possible, cannot be fettered by fixed creeds, dogmas, or systems, or bend to the authority or edict of an institution.
As we constantly advance to higher and more perfect ideals, we obtain clearer conceptions of the principles of truth, we expand and extend our spiritual horizon. We thus come to a better understanding of ourselves, our powers and forces, and the meaning of our existence.
Man grows only as he enlarges his thoughts. How can his thoughts be enlarged except as he takes on the new? By no other process can he enlarge his conceptions and understanding of life. As his ideals expand he comprehends more truth, he moves forward, he extends his visions, he grows, he sees beauty, harmony, and law in all created things.
Hence New Thought is a synonym for growth, for development, for perpetual and eternal progress. It recognizes the superior and excellent in man; it deals not with limitations; it sets no bounds to the soul's progress, for it sees in each soul transcendental faculties as limitless as infinity itself.
But, someone asks, has New Thought nothing but uncertain and shifting conceptions regarding man's relation to the universe? Is New Thought a mere tramp in the field of philosophical and religious thought? Is it anchored to nothing? These inquiries do not create surprise, since for centuries past men have been told that a belief in certain formulas war the first step in a religious life. They have become habituated to creeds, beliefs, and churches of authority and therefore deeply impressed with the thought that without them religion must decline and cease to have any vitality and strength. New Thought may be said to possess one fixed creed, that of an eternal search for truth. It is anchored to that one thought. It believes in truth, but it does not accept every conception of truth final. It realizes that attainment of truth is a process of evolution, growth, and development.
Man can acquire truth only as he is mentally and spiritually prepared to receive it. New Thought is anchored to the idea of finding the good and the beautiful in life, the development of latent possibilities in man, and that law reigns supreme in the universe. Anchored to these principles, New Thought moves forward in its quest for more truth, in its search for greater light that leads upward and onward toward a unity with God. It has not come to eradicate the old, except as the old fades away before the advancing light of the new. However, we have been told that it is dangerous to put new wine into old bottles lest the bottles may break. New Thought is constructive, not destructive. It is not here to tear down, but to build up. It employs addition, not subtraction. Its symbol is plus, not minus.
It recognizes that the universe is supported upon the enduring foundation of changeless principles and fixed laws, the result of an infinite and divine intelligence. It realizes also that man may grow into a knowledge and understanding of those principles and laws only as his conscious ideals grow from day to day.
Its goal is the understanding of life, of man, and a conscious unity of man with God. If its adherents differ, it is only in methods and not in the end sought. It does not enjoin methods. There are many avenues leading to truth. The arc-light sends out a myriad of rays, but they all lead to the one light.
The adherents of New Thought worship the omnipresent God, the indwelling God, in whom we live, move, and have our being. They do not conceive of God as distant or separated from man, but as a universal Spirit permeating all nature, finding its highest expression in man.
No better conception of the God of New Thought can be expressed than was given by Pythagoras to the world six centuries before the Christian era. Listen to the great message:
"God is the Universal Spirit that diffuses itself over all nature. All beings receive their life from Him. There is but one only God, who is not, as some are apt to imagine, seated above the world, beyond the orb of the universe; but being Himself all in all, He sees all the beings that fill His immensity, the only principle the light of heaven, the father of all. He produces everything. He orders and disposes of all things. He is the reason, the life and motion of all things."
New Thought teaches that the revelation of God to man is a continuous process through nature, through reason, the whispering of intuition through the events and experiences of life. The objects of nature convey their message only as they awaken the divine impulse within, the desire to come into harmony with God.
Molding our lives more and more into the divine likeness is the essential thought in any worthy religion; as Plato taught, the highest aspiration of man is "the free imitation of God."
To teach man to come into a conscious realization of the divinity within, and the unity of man and God, so that out of the sublimity of his soul he can say with the Gentle Master, "The Father and I are one," is the supreme purpose and meaning of New Thought.
Click Here for a brief history of the New Thought movement.
Click Here for more detailed information on New Thought history and beliefs.
Click Here for a History Chart of the development of New Thought.
Click Here for a summary of the similarities and differences between New Thought and New Age.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cornerstone Books Home Page
NEW THOUGHT...
NEW THOUGHT DEFINED
by Abel L. Allen
"O we can wait no longer,
We too take ship, O soul;
Joyous, we too launch out on trackless seas,
Fearless, for unknown shores, on waves of ecstasy to sail, Amid the wafting winds,
Chanting our chant of pleasant exploration.
O my brave soul,
O, farthcr, farther sail,
O daring joy, but safe, are they not, all the seas of God?
O, farther. farther sail."
WALT WHITMAN.
NEW THOUGHT is not, as many believe, a name or expression employed to define any fixed system of thought, philosophy, or religion, but is a term used to convey the idea of growing or developing thought. In considering this subject, the word "New" should be duly and freely emphasized, because the expression "New Thought" relates only to what is new and progressive.
It would be a misuse of terms to apply the expression "New Thought" to a system of thought, because when thought is molded and formed into a system, it ceases to be new. When a system of thought has reached maturity and ceases to grow, expand, and develop, it can no longer be defined by the word "New." It follows, therefore, as a necessary conclusion, that no system of new thought, or no system of thought defined by that expression, now exists or ever can exist. "New Thought" is the result or creation of perpetually advancing mind. The growing mind is not content with the past or its achievements. It is not satisfied with systems of philosophy or religion originating in other ages and handed down through succeeding generations. They do not satisfy the wants of the mind. Systems do not grow, mind develops. It wants something larger and better; it wants improvement, growth, and development. It is merely the logical and natural effort of the mind in its struggle for advancement; it is following its basic and innherent law.
As the growing mind applies thought to whatever enters into consciousness, it gains new and enlarged conceptions and, therefore, grows, and what it thinks is new. New Thought has been defined as the latest product of growing mind. A distinguished writer has characterized New Thought as an attitude of mind and not a cult. Those who grasp the true meaning and spirit of New Thought, or, as it is sometimes called, progressive or unfolding thought, do not conceive that a finished or completed system of thought, either philosophical or religious, is a possibility. All systems of thought change with the flight of time. Decay follows growth. The philosophies and religions of today differ from those of yesterday, and those of tomorrow will be unlike those of today. History alone demonstrates the truth of this statement. This conclusion is inevitable also from the very laws that govern man's growth and existence.
Man's body is not the only result of the processes of evolution, growth, and development, but his mind is likewise the product of the same great law. Man is an evolved and evolving being, physically, mentally, and spiritually. Change and growth are the silent mandates of divinity. The eternal current ever moves onward. We do not reckon with all of nature's forces. Back of all, unseen yet all powerful, is the one universal law or cosmic urge, forever pushing and projecting man forward into higher physical, mental, and spiritual development.
Through the principle of evolution, physical man was brought to his present state of development. By the same principle has he come to his present mental and spiritual condition. It is a principle operating throughout the universe. Evolution is a movement from the lower to the higher, from the simple to the complex, from the inferior to the superior. How can there be a fixed system of thought, a complete philosophy, a perfect theology, or a defined religion? For as man grows mentally and spiritually he moves away from such limitations. As his mental and spiritual visions expand, the very laws of his being lead him to higher and still higher conceptions of philosophical and religious truth. "Through spiritual evolution are we led to God."
Every system of philosophy or religion is the result of an evolutionary process, the product of the human mind and understanding. When thought changes, when the mind develops, when the understanding is enlarged, philosophies and religions must likewise change. This is a self-evident truth. Were it otherwise, systems of thought, philosophies, and religions would be greater than the minds that created them and launched them upon the world -- the things created would be greater than their creators. Were it not so, systems that have no inherent power of growth would become greater than man, whose very law is growth.
Moreover, fixed systems of thought, either philosophical or religious, are impossible, because they are not the same to any two persons but convey different meanings to each individual. No two persons think alike, or have the same conception or understanding of any important subject, least of all of a philosophical or religious subject. No two individuals are alike or think alike. Duplicates have never been discovered in all the broad domain of nature. Scientists tell us that even the molecules of which our bodies are composed differ one from the other.
"No two men in creation think alike,
No two men in creation look alike, No two men in creation are alike,
No worlds or suns or heavens, but are distinct and wear a separate beauty.''
No individual can convey his thoughts, ideas, and impressions entire to another. Language, either written or spoken, is but a symbol, and at best an imperfect vehicle to convey thought. The meaning of truth is deflected in its transmission. "Thought is deeper than speech; feeling deeper than thought; souls to souls can never teach what to themselves is taught." The mental and spiritual visions of man differ as the stars differ in magnitude. The same light does not shine with equal brilliancy on the pathway of each individual. What is light to one, may be a shadow to another.
Nor are our ideas changeless and fixed. Our thoughts, conceptions, and understandings change with the advancing years, as the soul receives new influx of light. As each morning bathes the earth in new light, so each returning day and every recurring season bring new meanings and understandings to the soul.
The greatest gift from God to man is a growing mind, one that expands from day to day as the light of truth breaks upon it. Were it otherwise, were our ideas fixed and changeless, life would be intolerable and existence a sterile waste. It is the new conception that thrills the soul and broadens the understanding, as the influx of new life brings physical health and growth.
In the search for truth each ultimate fact becomes a cause, a starting-point for the discovery of more truth. Every attainment is the beginning of the next. "Every end is the beginning." The discovery of a law of nature is only the forerunner of a more universal law. Thus in the search for truth the endless tide of progression rolls on, forever conveying to man broader conceptions of truth and carrying him into a higher realization of his relationship with divinity.
As man renews his mind and reaches out for larger conceptions of truth, his understanding is enlarged, he gains new viewpoints, his expanded thought is translated and externalized into life, he grows, he advances, he comes into a closer union with God.
Thought is not final. What we last think may be our best thought, but it is not our ultimate though. It is only the foregleams of greater thought -- we may not encompass the whole truth, but we can enlarge our conceptions of truth and thus bring ourselves nearer the reality. We all live, move and have our being in an atmosphere of truth; truth is only assimilated by the individual. It is not susceptible of monopoly or systematization. It is not encompassed by institutions, but its living spirit is present in every manifested form and object of nature.
We hear much at times about systems, established religions, and settled creeds. Every institution insists on laying its foundation on a dogma. It has been well said that when a church is built over truth, truth flies out at the window. Every creed and every dogma offered to man undertake to show man's true relationship to God. The major premise of every dogma rests upon an idea of God, and yet no two persons can be found with the same ideals and conceptions of God. Man's idea of God is but an image of himself. The major premise of every creed is the conception some man had of God. To talk about settled creeds, the indisputable presumption must be indulged, that all other men have the same conception of God. To have a finished system of thought or a definite creed respecting man's relations to God presupposes a perfect and complete knowledge and understanding of that relation, which is beyond man's comprehension in his present state of development. When he has attained the mental and spiritual growth necessary to comprehend that relationship in its fullness and entirety, he will possess all knowledge and all wisdom, he will be omniscient.
It took the Christian Church until the fifth century to formulate its creeds, and yet for fourteen centuries it has been striving to settie them and mold them into an acceptable system. Has it accomplished it? Are its adherents any nearer an agreement? It is no nearer the coveted goal than it was fourteen hundred years ago. It is creed against creed, dogma against dogma, and their adherents still continue to look outward for truth.
Man has caught only a few rays from the great light of truth. Even the agencies of external nature transcend and baffle our understanding. We use electricity, it is in our bodies, we see its manifestations, we harness it, we regulate it, but we know not what it is. How light reaches the earth is a puzzle to the understanding. Because we do not understand these familiar agencies, the meaning of nature's symbols, must we relinquish all efforts to discover their meaning and to find the laws that govern them? Must we desist in our search for truth?
Science is a search for the secrets of nature. It is an attempt to find the laws governing the universe. The laws of the universe are the laws of God. Science, then, in its broadest aspect is a search for the knowledge of God. As man delves more deeply into the secrets of nature, the mysteries of the universe, his spiritual visions will expand and he will have broader and more comprehensive conceptions of God. Yet we are told that religion must be let alone; that creeds and theologies must not be disturbed, that they are not the subject of inquiry. How futile the attempt to set bounds to the processes of thought; why should not man seek for a better religion as he struggles for better government? Thought was the first step toward civil liberty. Thought is the first step toward the soul's liberty.
Truth is the understanding of the principles underlying the universe. Truth is as illimitable and boundless as the universe itself. Principles and laws are changeless, but our understanding of them changes as our minds gain new conceptions of truth and as they grow and develop. Only as the mind dwells on principles can it advance to a larger understanding of truth and higher conceptions of life. Principles are the landmarks to which all things are tied. When man departs from them he enters the jungle of uncertainty and confusion. To gain higher conceptions of the principles and laws underlying the universe is the real work of man. As he comes into an enlarged understanding of these principles, he directs the current of his life in accordance therewith. He grows into a closer harmony with nature, and enters a richer and more satisfying field of experience.
A moral and religious life must be a growing life, an advancing life, a life positively and constantly constructive. Man is either progressing or receding; spiritually and mentally he cannot stand still. All nature, with her actions and reactions, proclaims this great truth in every moment of life.
All useful discoveries in science have been the result of progressive and continued thought, thought applied to the discovery of the secrets of nature. Each discovery has been a stepping-stone to the next. The discovery of each law became a light for the discovery of more laws. Each discovery in nature is a benefit to the race, a step forward, and enlarges man's understanding of God.
Man can grow into a knowledge of his relationship with God and reach out toward the divine goal, only as he renews his mind, only as he enlarges his conception of what is within his consciousness, only as he presses forward into a higher spiritual and mental development.
Why should not new conceptions be applied to religion as well as governments? Religion relates to man's life and destiny: Government regulates man's relation with his fellow-man. Governments have existed as long as religion. They both sprang into existence with the dawn of reason. They traveled side by side down the ages. They have changed as man has progressed in civilization.
We do not yet concede the existence of a perfect government. The model government is not yet in sight. The struggle to improve government goes on as relentlessly as ever before in history. The rights of man forever assert themselves. They have been improved and secured only as he created new ideals of government, only as he applied new thoughts and new conceptions to existing governments.
The creeds which attempt to set bounds to religious thought, which endeavor to define man's conceptions of God, were given to the world when scientific thinking was unknown and by men whose conceptions of nature were no better than idle superstitions. The formulators of the creeds, in their blind endeavor to set up a system founded on the oriental allegory of the Garden of Eden, apparently did not know that truth has no terminals and cannot be defined or circumscribed. If they had looked into the great laboratory of nature and given thought and study to her processes, they might have there read that nature tells no falsehoods and that her very law is growth, development, and eternal progress. They might hug the delusion that creeds are static, that they are fixed and final, bur they could find nothing in nature remotely to hint at limitation or set bounds to her modifying processes. Change is written everywhere in her symbols. Her pulsations of life growth and decay, the morning and evening, the return of the seasons, all bespeak eternal change. There are no fixtures in all her domain. She has her seed-time and harvest, her summer and winter, her heat and cold. Her pendulum always swings.
Everything vibrates and oscillates through the broad stretches of infinity. Since motion produces change, everything in nature is passing through perpetual change.
Let us apply the analogies of nature to man, for is man not a part of nature? The physical man is changing as the moments speed away. Scientists at one time said our bodies were entirely renewed once in seven years. Now they have reduced the time to twelve months or less. Man is constantly putting off the old and putting on the new, but nature ever tends toward perfection. From the amoeba to man was a long and tedious struggle, but it marks the developing and perfecting laws of nature. Her movements were ever from the lower to the higher, by the ceaseless and tireless processes of evolution, to the highly complex and individualized man, conscious of his own personality and existence.
We recognize man as a co-worker with nature, and his right to assist her in her efforts toward perfection. He applies thought to her processes, and with her aid brings the flower, the fruit, the nut, and the animal to perfection. Is not nature a part of God? Are not these symbols through which God finds expression and speaks to man? Why not Burbank religions, creeds, and theologies, as well as the fruits and products of the earth?
When man is a co-worker with nature he is a co-worker with God; he applies thought to the processes and laws of nature, and behold she smiles back with fatness and plenty. Then let us, with a sublime courage and kindly spirit, turn the God-given mind in each to higher ideas of God, and God will smile back with prophetic glimpses of the eternal peace and beauty of true religion.
All thought is new. What we know, what we understand, we do not think about. It is only the new that creates interest or enthusiasm. It alone awakens the mind and soul to activity and effort. The soul is always thrilled with the reception of new truth. Without enthusiasm nothing great was ever accomplished. It has ever been the propelling force of man in every important and momentous undertaking. We instinctively turn from the old to the new. It is the law of mind, it is nature's method, it is God's plan of teaching man to grow.
Emerson said, "What is the ground of this uneasiness of ours, of this old discontent? What is this universal sense of want and ignorance, but the fine innuendo by which the great soul makes its enormous claim?" Progress is the law of the soul. Evermore the mind stretches forth toward the infinite, to grasp and reduce to understanding her mysteries, her wanders, and her secrets. To bind it to a fixed creed, a defined religion or system of thought, is as impossible as to pluck the Pleiades from the galaxy of the stars. The mind that can flash its thoughts across billions of miles from star to star in the hundredth part of a second, as the scientists tell us is possible, cannot be fettered by fixed creeds, dogmas, or systems, or bend to the authority or edict of an institution.
As we constantly advance to higher and more perfect ideals, we obtain clearer conceptions of the principles of truth, we expand and extend our spiritual horizon. We thus come to a better understanding of ourselves, our powers and forces, and the meaning of our existence.
Man grows only as he enlarges his thoughts. How can his thoughts be enlarged except as he takes on the new? By no other process can he enlarge his conceptions and understanding of life. As his ideals expand he comprehends more truth, he moves forward, he extends his visions, he grows, he sees beauty, harmony, and law in all created things.
Hence New Thought is a synonym for growth, for development, for perpetual and eternal progress. It recognizes the superior and excellent in man; it deals not with limitations; it sets no bounds to the soul's progress, for it sees in each soul transcendental faculties as limitless as infinity itself.
But, someone asks, has New Thought nothing but uncertain and shifting conceptions regarding man's relation to the universe? Is New Thought a mere tramp in the field of philosophical and religious thought? Is it anchored to nothing? These inquiries do not create surprise, since for centuries past men have been told that a belief in certain formulas war the first step in a religious life. They have become habituated to creeds, beliefs, and churches of authority and therefore deeply impressed with the thought that without them religion must decline and cease to have any vitality and strength. New Thought may be said to possess one fixed creed, that of an eternal search for truth. It is anchored to that one thought. It believes in truth, but it does not accept every conception of truth final. It realizes that attainment of truth is a process of evolution, growth, and development.
Man can acquire truth only as he is mentally and spiritually prepared to receive it. New Thought is anchored to the idea of finding the good and the beautiful in life, the development of latent possibilities in man, and that law reigns supreme in the universe. Anchored to these principles, New Thought moves forward in its quest for more truth, in its search for greater light that leads upward and onward toward a unity with God. It has not come to eradicate the old, except as the old fades away before the advancing light of the new. However, we have been told that it is dangerous to put new wine into old bottles lest the bottles may break. New Thought is constructive, not destructive. It is not here to tear down, but to build up. It employs addition, not subtraction. Its symbol is plus, not minus.
It recognizes that the universe is supported upon the enduring foundation of changeless principles and fixed laws, the result of an infinite and divine intelligence. It realizes also that man may grow into a knowledge and understanding of those principles and laws only as his conscious ideals grow from day to day.
Its goal is the understanding of life, of man, and a conscious unity of man with God. If its adherents differ, it is only in methods and not in the end sought. It does not enjoin methods. There are many avenues leading to truth. The arc-light sends out a myriad of rays, but they all lead to the one light.
The adherents of New Thought worship the omnipresent God, the indwelling God, in whom we live, move, and have our being. They do not conceive of God as distant or separated from man, but as a universal Spirit permeating all nature, finding its highest expression in man.
No better conception of the God of New Thought can be expressed than was given by Pythagoras to the world six centuries before the Christian era. Listen to the great message:
"God is the Universal Spirit that diffuses itself over all nature. All beings receive their life from Him. There is but one only God, who is not, as some are apt to imagine, seated above the world, beyond the orb of the universe; but being Himself all in all, He sees all the beings that fill His immensity, the only principle the light of heaven, the father of all. He produces everything. He orders and disposes of all things. He is the reason, the life and motion of all things."
New Thought teaches that the revelation of God to man is a continuous process through nature, through reason, the whispering of intuition through the events and experiences of life. The objects of nature convey their message only as they awaken the divine impulse within, the desire to come into harmony with God.
Molding our lives more and more into the divine likeness is the essential thought in any worthy religion; as Plato taught, the highest aspiration of man is "the free imitation of God."
To teach man to come into a conscious realization of the divinity within, and the unity of man and God, so that out of the sublimity of his soul he can say with the Gentle Master, "The Father and I are one," is the supreme purpose and meaning of New Thought.
Click Here for a brief history of the New Thought movement.
Click Here for more detailed information on New Thought history and beliefs.
Click Here for a History Chart of the development of New Thought.
Click Here for a summary of the similarities and differences between New Thought and New Age.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cornerstone Books Home Page
Distance Learning/ Systems Theory Reference Article from Contract/ Higher Education/ Margith Strand
Editor’s Note: `This is an interesting study on the anatomy of distance learning from the perspective of involved students, faculty, technologists, administrators and support staff. This is a good system study that highlights the complexities, human and technical, within the evolution of distance learning.
Socio-Technical System Advancements:
Making Distance Learning Changes That Count
Denise Land, Anthony Nwadei, Scott Stufflebeam, Cyril Olaka
Introduction
“Let the Knowledge Olympics begin. The torch of e-learning is ablaze”
(Bersch, 2001, p. 32).
The distance-learning environment taps innovative technologies to offer flexible and engaging adult learning opportunities. Students engaged in distance learning are able to learn anytime, anywhere, in a collaborative learning community. Online learning promotes the globalization of adult learning by opening the boundaries of learning (Neo & Eng, 2001).
This review of student suggestions regarding socio-technical redesign of distance learning venues to optimize human and technical resources, including the identification of associated learning benefits, provides a needed assessment of distance learning configuration. In addition, the authors present an analysis of anticipated reactions to conditions necessary for successful introduction of change.
Systems Theory Overview
In the 1950’s, German biophysiologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy introduced general systems theory based on the assumption that essential principles of system relationship governed and explained the relationships amongst and between the interrelated aspects of a system (Hatch, 1997). “Each part is conceived as affecting the others and each depends upon the whole” (Hatch, p.35). The two primary tenets of the general systems theory include the notion that the theory is relevant and applicable to any thing science can study, and that all systems can be divided into analyzable parts for the purpose of study, however their true systems essence can only be studied as a holistic system. “The implication is that, to comprehend a system, you must not merely analyze, you must also be willing to transcend the view of the individual parts to encounter the entire system at its own level of complexity” (Hatch, p.35). Online academic distance learning arenas, associated school administration, instructional facilitation, technological mechanisms, and students are accurately considered a system.
Bertalanffy (1968) stated that “systems theory is a broad view which far transcends technological problems and demands, a reorientation that has become necessary in science in general and in the gamut of disciplines from physics and biology to the behavioral and social sciences and to philosophy” (p. vii). Systems theory allows understanding of the structure and dynamics of all systems, allowing for the observation of relationships between various elements of a system viewed holistically versus elementally segregating isolated aspects of the overall system (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Systems philosophy is the “reorientation of thought and world view ensuing from the introduction of “system” as a new scientific paradigm (in contrast to the analytic, mechanistic, one-way causal paradigm of classical science)” (von Bertalanffy, 1968, p. xxi).
Suggested Socio-technical Modifications
Employment markets and employee positions of the present day and future challenge individuals to have greater, more comprehensive skill capacities and abilities, therefore higher education organizations are experiencing increased demand for a larger variety of rapid paced educational resource options for the adult learning community. “Within a context of rapid technological change and shifting market conditions, the American education system is challenged with providing increased educational opportunities without increased budgets” (Willis, guide 1, 2002). Many universities offer the adult learning community a technology based option for gaining institutionally provided learning experiences previously confined to the traditional classroom arena. The benefits of e-learning include: a) instantaneous materials access; b) convenience; c) improved learning retention; d) real-world application; e) practicality, flexibility and learning consistency; f) just-in-time information for career-active students; g) global incorporation of new concepts; h) minimal disruption of family and work life responsibilities; i) elimination of space, time and geographical constraints; j) increased peer interaction due to the collaborative learning environment; k) increased interaction with more accessible teachers; l) increased quality of learning with deeper critical reflection; and, m) increased access to information and other resources not available in traditional environments.
The distance-learning environment is never static, but reflects the dynamism of the learning communities. The dialog of the online classroom stimulates the learning environment in which students interact with each other to expand their ideas via electronic forums and communication tools such as learning group discussions, bulletin boards, Internet relay chat, newsgroup discussion, E-mails, etc. (Atwong et al, 1996; Natesan & Natesan, 1996; Seibert 1996; Siegel, 1996). The e-learning model assumes that learning is a social activity and learners tap the learning network to verbalize their thoughts. The technological advantage of online classrooms promotes active group learning through technology-mediated dialogs (Cordell, 1996). There is never a dull moment online due to the interactive nature of collaborative learning. In addition, the somewhat impersonal online medium promotes greater student reflection. For the student, online learning provides: a) greater cognitive development; b) critical thinking skills to challenge assumptions; c) exploration to further professional practice; d) empowerment of professionals to heighten personal responsibility toward creating social change; and, e) discovery of new knowledge.
Currently, many options exist including voice, video, data, and print medias for the gathering and facilitating of the adult learning process. “These types of programs can provide adults with a second chance at a college education, reach those disadvantaged by limited time, distance or physical disability, and update the knowledge base of workers at their places of employment” (Willis, guide 1, 2002).
Specific Suggested Socio-Technical Modifications:
· Increased motivators and requirements for student-to-student interaction.
· Timely teacher to student feedback; particularly that which is of the Socratic fashion of question asking and thought provoking reflections.
· Use of voice instructional audio tools such as telephone conferencing, audio-conferencing, short-wave radio and audiotape lessons or materials.
· Use of instructional video tools such as slides, videos, films, and video-conferencing.
· Optimal implementation of electronic mail, fax, real-time computer conferencing and World-Wide Web applications.
· Greater incorporation of most recent topic related print materials, including study guides, journal articles, textbooks, popular books, case studies and workbooks.
· Focus on objectively achieving identified outcomes of the course.
· Incorporation of interactive audio or video conferencing to cost-effectively incorporate guest speakers and content experts into course curriculum.
Expected Stakeholder Reaction to Change
Primary stakeholders include students, student employers, student family members, university faculty, university support staff, and university administration. The possibility exists that all stakeholders will experience an increased level of initial stress due in part to the increased expectations of unilateral application of all suggestions. This stress is further increased by the speed in which change occurs. Unlike the metamorphosis of the butterfly, change no longer evolves over long periods of time. Now, with organizational change such as that evident in academic course re-structuring, it often feels like being part of an accelerated metamorphic process with insufficient time to adjust from one stage to the next. Once upon a time, only buildings were stressed and people could be tired, worried, anxious, nervous, uncertain, or working long hours. In more recent times, 'stress' has evolved from an engineering term to a culture construct (Columbia University, 1998). During major organizational change, the most important and difficult journey individuals need to make is the internal process of change (Bridges, 1995). While many of the external aspects of change happen according to schedule, the internal transition from denial and resistance to acceptance and commitment is a different story. Changing structures and developing new processes and procedures challenges stakeholders' beliefs as to their own identity and values. Individuals may experience feelings of disorientation, insecurity and uncertainty. Stakeholders may display a variety of emotional reactions regarding restructuring decisions and behaviors that, in stakeholder perception, have robbed them of a known way of life and imagined security, and cast uncertain shadows on their future academic activities.
Based on the assumption that emotional and behavioral reactions are largely caused by conscious and unconscious beliefs, in addition to systemic relationships, the goal is to help stakeholders begin to understand the links between their own ways of thinking in response to change and their increased stress levels. Action planning and practice are crucial elements because beliefs and ways of thinking are the product of long-term learning and will not change without sustained hard work, in addition to the ingredients necessary for effective change processes. In changing, people are giving up part of themselves and letting go of ideas and practices they have long used to make sense of the world and of themselves. When practicing new behaviors, people experience feelings of insecurity and uncertainty. This anxiety along with other adverse affects of change can be reduced or eliminated by ensuring that all of the key ingredients of successful change are included in any plan and process for change. Effective change is made possible through provision of vision + skills + incentives + resources + action planning.
Key Ingredients to Managing Complex Change:
Vision
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
CHANGE
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
CONFUSION
Vision
+
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
ANXIETY
Vision
+
Skills
+
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
RESISTANCE
Vision
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
+
Action Plan
=
FRUSTRATION
Vision
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
=
TREADMILL
From the stakeholder perspective, developing attitudes for successful self-management through the change process means learning to screen the input from situations, events and other people and process it appropriately. Provided with the ingredients for a successful change process, stakeholders can learn to sort, toss, keep or redirect incoming information by learning to be alert to their own emotional responses and inner dialogue.
Conditions Necessary for Successful Introduction
In most organizations, events happen that stakeholders disagree with, yet remain out of their control to stop or change. Some form of organizational change will always be present, resulting in increased workload, deadlines, conflicts, uncertainty and frustration. In developing the program our goal was not to eliminate stress (there is no magical 'cure'), but to offer tools to manage it and methods to help minimize its effects. The goal of leadership is to help stakeholders begin to understand the links between their own ways of thinking in response to change and their increased stress levels. Within organizational change, people will experience things they cannot control. At times, stakeholders are forced to make some difficult or painful changes where desirable choices seem non-existent. Unfortunately, people may direct their attention to the things they cannot control, resulting in reduced awareness of available choices and feelings of being trapped. This results in higher stress levels and decreased effectiveness. Working with stakeholders to identify what they can and cannot control about the changes they will be experiencing leads to realizations like the following:
What we cannot control:
What we can control:
Decisions made by administration
Some decisions made by top management
Other people
Consequences of our behavior or actions
The unknowing self
How we behave or act
Our thoughts
Our contribution and performance
Our choices
What we say to others, positive or negative input
“Successful distance education programs rely on the consistent and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators. Without exception, effective distance education programs begin with careful planning and a focused understanding of course requirements and student needs”
(Willis, guide 1, 2002).
While administrators of educational institutions often focus on the technical requirements of early implementation activities with distance learning strategies, later administrative emphasis is more appropriately focused on coalition and consensus building. Necessary for successful introduction of any change is visionary leadership, which can bring together the forces and resources necessary for successful implementation. In particular, administrative leadership and faculty will need to have in place trained and efficient support staff with the necessary resources to facilitate distribution and access to all course materials and technology for easy student access and use.
Faculty Strategies for an Improved Transition Process:
· Develop an understanding of the characteristics and needs of distant learning students with little first-hand experience and limited, if any, face-to-face contact.
· Adapt teaching styles taking into consideration the needs and expectations of multiple, often diverse, audiences.
· Develop a working understanding of delivery technology, while remaining focused on the teaching role.
· Function effectively as a skilled facilitator as well as content provider (Willis, guide 1, 2002).
Improved Planning and Organization
for Successful Implementation:
Before developing something new, check and review existing materials for content and presentation ideas (Willis, guide 2, 2002)
Hands-on training with the technology of delivery is critical for both teacher and students. Consider a pre-class session in which the class meets informally using the delivery technology and learns about the roles and responsibilities of technical support staff (Willis, guide 2, 2002).
At the start of class, initiate a frank discussion to set rules, guidelines, and standards. Once procedures have been established, consistently uphold them (Willis, guide 2, 2002).
By its very nature, distance education relies heavily on the individual students' ability to manage and control their personal and situational circumstances to be successful. Academic achievement correlates with more positive internal beliefs (Findley & Cooper, 1983; Phares, 1976; Riipinen, 1994). These include: competitiveness, motivation to learn for its own sake rather than for performance, and motivation to avoid failure (Eppler & Harju, 1997; Platow & Shave, 1995; Thorne, 1995).
In reflection, additional keys to success include:
a) the ability to balance student studies with other personal and work commitments;
b) comprehensive orientation to expectations and learning objectives;
c) universal and user-friendly technology support;
d) a positive attitude about overcoming obstacles and challenges;
e) record achievements, learnings and useful resources; and,
f) get appropriate training to master basic academic skills, such as library and writing skills is especially helpful.
For the adult learner, the principles of online learning are compatible with the strategies of adult learning that include: self-directed learning, using past experience as a resource base for learning, fitting new knowledge into current work and personal life situations, real-life problems-solving advantages, and time-management advantages for the time conscious student.
For teachers, facilitating a distance-learning program is a very different skill from lecturing or other forms of instruction in which the teacher dominates. Teachers need to be able to assess students' readiness for such learning and guide them from a position of dependence to independence. Teachers should provide a structure, in terms of offering guidance, checking plans, suggesting resources, and clarifying the basis on which work will be judged. Teachers have all heard the call "Back to Basics!" Effective strategies include:
a) creating an awareness of the strategy to be learned,
b) modeling the strategy,
c) providing practice in the use of the strategy, and,
d) applying the strategy in real-life situations.
The most in-depth and perhaps most important goal of teaching is to enhance comprehension, learning is more meaningful when students are active participants. We all remember best that in which we take an active part. Higher-level critical thinking skills are an important part of comprehension. Asking questions that cause students to use inductive thinking is important. Another strategy is to provide activities that are open ended and allow students the opportunity to come up with a variety of answers. In addition, having to explain how they arrived at their choice and discerning whether or not they have used logical thinking is also important to student development.
Conclusion
For the student eager to engage in the advantages and stimulation of an active adult learning environment distance learning education programs are highly advantageous. Few learning opportunities can provide the combination of enriched collaborative learning environments offered by a quality on-line environment with the freedom and flexibility advantages necessary for the success and inclusion of active professionals. In addition, the collegial support of cohort learning partners and professors with professional experience greatly enrich the environment, the learning challenge, and the learning outcomes.
Checkland defines systems thinking as: "an epistemology which, when applied to human activity is based upon the four basic ideas: emergence, hierarchy, communication, and control as characteristics of systems. When applied to natural or designed systems the crucial characteristic is the emergent properties of the whole" (Checkland, 1999, p. 318). Systems theory emphasizes the capacity to realize the relationships, structures and patterns of the whole, versus segmentation and analysis of separate parts (Checkland, 1999; Senge, 1990). Understanding systems theory allows for the witnessing of system-based relationships contributing to cause and effect reactions versus the alternative of focusing on the outcome symptoms. “Research comparing distance education to traditional face-to-face instruction indicates that teaching and studying at a distance can be as effective as traditional instruction, when the method and technologies used are appropriate to the instructional tasks, there is student-to-student interaction, and when there is timely teacher-to-student feedback (Moore & Thompson, 1990; Verduin & Clark, 1991)” (Willis, guide 1, 2002).
References
Atwong, C T, Lang, I. L., Doak, L., & Aijo, T. S. (1996). How collaborative learning spans the globe, Marketing News, 30 Aug.
Bersch, C. (2001, April). Can you go the distance? Communication News, 38(4), pp. 32-36.
Bridges, W. Managing Transitions. Nicholas Brealey Publishers, London, 1995.
Burns, R. Managing People In Changing Times. Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1993.
Checkland, P. (1999). Systems thinking, systems practice. Chichester, NY: John Wiley & Sons, LTD.
Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. The Commerce of Coping. (internet website: http://stress.jrn.columbia.edu/site/index.html), 1998.
Cordell, V (1996), Application of group decision support systems in marketing education, Journal of Marketing Education, 18, Spring.
Eppler, M. & Harju, B. (1997). Achievement motivation goals in relation to academic performance in traditional and nontraditional college students, Research in Higher Education, vol. 38 no. 5, pp. 557-73.
Findley, M. I & Cooper, H. M. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement:
A literature review, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, No. 64, pp. 419-27.
Hatch, M. (1997). Organization theory (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Moore, M. G. & Thompson, M. M., with Quigley, A. B., Clark, G. C., & Goff, G. G. (1990). The effects of distance learning: A summary of the literature. Research Monograph No. 2. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education. (ED 330 321)
Natesan, M. & Natesan, N. C. (1996). The Internet marketing tool in the classroom, in Great ideas for teaching marketing, Hair, J. F., Lamb Jr., C. W., McDaniel, C., & Roach, S. S., (eds.) Cincinnati, OH: Southwestern College Publishing.
Phares, M. (1976) Locus of control in personality. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Platow, M. & Shave, R. 1995, Social value orientations and the expression of achievement motivation, Journal of Social Psychology, 135(1) pp. 71-81.
Riipinen, M. (1994). Extrinsic occupational needs and the relationship between need for achievement and locus of control, Journal of Psychology Interdisciplinary & Applied, 128(5) pp. 577-87
Seibert, L. J. (1996). Using the net, e-mail in marketing education, Marketing News, 30, August.
Siegel, C. F. (1996). Using computer networks (intranet and internet) to enhance your students marketing skills, Journal of marketing education, 18, Fall.
Thorne, Y. (1995). Achievement motivation in high achieving Latina women, Roeper Review, 18(1), pp. 44-9.
Verduin, J. R. & Clark, T. A. (1991). Distance education: The foundations of effective practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory: Foundations, development, applications. New York: George Braziller.
Wee Keng Neo, Lynda & Eng, Chen Swee. (2001). Getting it right: Enhancing On-line learning for higher education using the learner-driven approach. Singapore Management Review. 2001 2nd half, 23(2), p61, 14p
Willis, B. (2002). Distance education at a glance. University of Idaho. Internet resource retrieved: October 15, 2002.
About the Authors
Denise Land is Deputy Director of the Child Abuse Prevention Council of Placer County. She is responsible for fund development, finance administration, multi-agency collaboration and integration strategies, fee reimbursement strategies, and family support program technical assistance. Ms. Land has had experience working with diverse communities, particularly in the areas of child development and child abuse prevention and intervention. She holds an MSW and a BS in Gerontology. She is currently a Doctor of Management student at the University of Phoenix.
Anthony Chiedu Nwadei is a doctoral candidate of the University of Phoenix Doctor of Management, Organizational Leadership online program. He holds a B.Sc. (Hons.) and M.Sc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering and MBA.
Scott Dwain Stufflebeam is a consultant and an attorney focusing upon organizations, human resources, and real estate. He was president of First American Title Company with over twenty years of experience in management. He is currently enrolled in the doctorate program at University of Phoenix.
Cyril Olaka is a business consultant in Dallas, Texas. He attended Minnesota State University, Mankato, Minnesota, where he obtained Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree in March 1985. He also obtained Bachelor of Science degree in February 1993 and Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics in March 1995 from Bemidji State University, Bemidji, Minnesota. He is currently pursuing Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership in University of Phoenix.
In This Issue | Podium | Featured Articles | Student Exchange | Technology Exchange
State Exchange | Positions
Socio-Technical System Advancements:
Making Distance Learning Changes That Count
Denise Land, Anthony Nwadei, Scott Stufflebeam, Cyril Olaka
Introduction
“Let the Knowledge Olympics begin. The torch of e-learning is ablaze”
(Bersch, 2001, p. 32).
The distance-learning environment taps innovative technologies to offer flexible and engaging adult learning opportunities. Students engaged in distance learning are able to learn anytime, anywhere, in a collaborative learning community. Online learning promotes the globalization of adult learning by opening the boundaries of learning (Neo & Eng, 2001).
This review of student suggestions regarding socio-technical redesign of distance learning venues to optimize human and technical resources, including the identification of associated learning benefits, provides a needed assessment of distance learning configuration. In addition, the authors present an analysis of anticipated reactions to conditions necessary for successful introduction of change.
Systems Theory Overview
In the 1950’s, German biophysiologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy introduced general systems theory based on the assumption that essential principles of system relationship governed and explained the relationships amongst and between the interrelated aspects of a system (Hatch, 1997). “Each part is conceived as affecting the others and each depends upon the whole” (Hatch, p.35). The two primary tenets of the general systems theory include the notion that the theory is relevant and applicable to any thing science can study, and that all systems can be divided into analyzable parts for the purpose of study, however their true systems essence can only be studied as a holistic system. “The implication is that, to comprehend a system, you must not merely analyze, you must also be willing to transcend the view of the individual parts to encounter the entire system at its own level of complexity” (Hatch, p.35). Online academic distance learning arenas, associated school administration, instructional facilitation, technological mechanisms, and students are accurately considered a system.
Bertalanffy (1968) stated that “systems theory is a broad view which far transcends technological problems and demands, a reorientation that has become necessary in science in general and in the gamut of disciplines from physics and biology to the behavioral and social sciences and to philosophy” (p. vii). Systems theory allows understanding of the structure and dynamics of all systems, allowing for the observation of relationships between various elements of a system viewed holistically versus elementally segregating isolated aspects of the overall system (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Systems philosophy is the “reorientation of thought and world view ensuing from the introduction of “system” as a new scientific paradigm (in contrast to the analytic, mechanistic, one-way causal paradigm of classical science)” (von Bertalanffy, 1968, p. xxi).
Suggested Socio-technical Modifications
Employment markets and employee positions of the present day and future challenge individuals to have greater, more comprehensive skill capacities and abilities, therefore higher education organizations are experiencing increased demand for a larger variety of rapid paced educational resource options for the adult learning community. “Within a context of rapid technological change and shifting market conditions, the American education system is challenged with providing increased educational opportunities without increased budgets” (Willis, guide 1, 2002). Many universities offer the adult learning community a technology based option for gaining institutionally provided learning experiences previously confined to the traditional classroom arena. The benefits of e-learning include: a) instantaneous materials access; b) convenience; c) improved learning retention; d) real-world application; e) practicality, flexibility and learning consistency; f) just-in-time information for career-active students; g) global incorporation of new concepts; h) minimal disruption of family and work life responsibilities; i) elimination of space, time and geographical constraints; j) increased peer interaction due to the collaborative learning environment; k) increased interaction with more accessible teachers; l) increased quality of learning with deeper critical reflection; and, m) increased access to information and other resources not available in traditional environments.
The distance-learning environment is never static, but reflects the dynamism of the learning communities. The dialog of the online classroom stimulates the learning environment in which students interact with each other to expand their ideas via electronic forums and communication tools such as learning group discussions, bulletin boards, Internet relay chat, newsgroup discussion, E-mails, etc. (Atwong et al, 1996; Natesan & Natesan, 1996; Seibert 1996; Siegel, 1996). The e-learning model assumes that learning is a social activity and learners tap the learning network to verbalize their thoughts. The technological advantage of online classrooms promotes active group learning through technology-mediated dialogs (Cordell, 1996). There is never a dull moment online due to the interactive nature of collaborative learning. In addition, the somewhat impersonal online medium promotes greater student reflection. For the student, online learning provides: a) greater cognitive development; b) critical thinking skills to challenge assumptions; c) exploration to further professional practice; d) empowerment of professionals to heighten personal responsibility toward creating social change; and, e) discovery of new knowledge.
Currently, many options exist including voice, video, data, and print medias for the gathering and facilitating of the adult learning process. “These types of programs can provide adults with a second chance at a college education, reach those disadvantaged by limited time, distance or physical disability, and update the knowledge base of workers at their places of employment” (Willis, guide 1, 2002).
Specific Suggested Socio-Technical Modifications:
· Increased motivators and requirements for student-to-student interaction.
· Timely teacher to student feedback; particularly that which is of the Socratic fashion of question asking and thought provoking reflections.
· Use of voice instructional audio tools such as telephone conferencing, audio-conferencing, short-wave radio and audiotape lessons or materials.
· Use of instructional video tools such as slides, videos, films, and video-conferencing.
· Optimal implementation of electronic mail, fax, real-time computer conferencing and World-Wide Web applications.
· Greater incorporation of most recent topic related print materials, including study guides, journal articles, textbooks, popular books, case studies and workbooks.
· Focus on objectively achieving identified outcomes of the course.
· Incorporation of interactive audio or video conferencing to cost-effectively incorporate guest speakers and content experts into course curriculum.
Expected Stakeholder Reaction to Change
Primary stakeholders include students, student employers, student family members, university faculty, university support staff, and university administration. The possibility exists that all stakeholders will experience an increased level of initial stress due in part to the increased expectations of unilateral application of all suggestions. This stress is further increased by the speed in which change occurs. Unlike the metamorphosis of the butterfly, change no longer evolves over long periods of time. Now, with organizational change such as that evident in academic course re-structuring, it often feels like being part of an accelerated metamorphic process with insufficient time to adjust from one stage to the next. Once upon a time, only buildings were stressed and people could be tired, worried, anxious, nervous, uncertain, or working long hours. In more recent times, 'stress' has evolved from an engineering term to a culture construct (Columbia University, 1998). During major organizational change, the most important and difficult journey individuals need to make is the internal process of change (Bridges, 1995). While many of the external aspects of change happen according to schedule, the internal transition from denial and resistance to acceptance and commitment is a different story. Changing structures and developing new processes and procedures challenges stakeholders' beliefs as to their own identity and values. Individuals may experience feelings of disorientation, insecurity and uncertainty. Stakeholders may display a variety of emotional reactions regarding restructuring decisions and behaviors that, in stakeholder perception, have robbed them of a known way of life and imagined security, and cast uncertain shadows on their future academic activities.
Based on the assumption that emotional and behavioral reactions are largely caused by conscious and unconscious beliefs, in addition to systemic relationships, the goal is to help stakeholders begin to understand the links between their own ways of thinking in response to change and their increased stress levels. Action planning and practice are crucial elements because beliefs and ways of thinking are the product of long-term learning and will not change without sustained hard work, in addition to the ingredients necessary for effective change processes. In changing, people are giving up part of themselves and letting go of ideas and practices they have long used to make sense of the world and of themselves. When practicing new behaviors, people experience feelings of insecurity and uncertainty. This anxiety along with other adverse affects of change can be reduced or eliminated by ensuring that all of the key ingredients of successful change are included in any plan and process for change. Effective change is made possible through provision of vision + skills + incentives + resources + action planning.
Key Ingredients to Managing Complex Change:
Vision
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
CHANGE
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
CONFUSION
Vision
+
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
ANXIETY
Vision
+
Skills
+
+
Resources
+
Action Plan
=
RESISTANCE
Vision
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
+
Action Plan
=
FRUSTRATION
Vision
+
Skills
+
Incentives
+
Resources
+
=
TREADMILL
From the stakeholder perspective, developing attitudes for successful self-management through the change process means learning to screen the input from situations, events and other people and process it appropriately. Provided with the ingredients for a successful change process, stakeholders can learn to sort, toss, keep or redirect incoming information by learning to be alert to their own emotional responses and inner dialogue.
Conditions Necessary for Successful Introduction
In most organizations, events happen that stakeholders disagree with, yet remain out of their control to stop or change. Some form of organizational change will always be present, resulting in increased workload, deadlines, conflicts, uncertainty and frustration. In developing the program our goal was not to eliminate stress (there is no magical 'cure'), but to offer tools to manage it and methods to help minimize its effects. The goal of leadership is to help stakeholders begin to understand the links between their own ways of thinking in response to change and their increased stress levels. Within organizational change, people will experience things they cannot control. At times, stakeholders are forced to make some difficult or painful changes where desirable choices seem non-existent. Unfortunately, people may direct their attention to the things they cannot control, resulting in reduced awareness of available choices and feelings of being trapped. This results in higher stress levels and decreased effectiveness. Working with stakeholders to identify what they can and cannot control about the changes they will be experiencing leads to realizations like the following:
What we cannot control:
What we can control:
Decisions made by administration
Some decisions made by top management
Other people
Consequences of our behavior or actions
The unknowing self
How we behave or act
Our thoughts
Our contribution and performance
Our choices
What we say to others, positive or negative input
“Successful distance education programs rely on the consistent and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators. Without exception, effective distance education programs begin with careful planning and a focused understanding of course requirements and student needs”
(Willis, guide 1, 2002).
While administrators of educational institutions often focus on the technical requirements of early implementation activities with distance learning strategies, later administrative emphasis is more appropriately focused on coalition and consensus building. Necessary for successful introduction of any change is visionary leadership, which can bring together the forces and resources necessary for successful implementation. In particular, administrative leadership and faculty will need to have in place trained and efficient support staff with the necessary resources to facilitate distribution and access to all course materials and technology for easy student access and use.
Faculty Strategies for an Improved Transition Process:
· Develop an understanding of the characteristics and needs of distant learning students with little first-hand experience and limited, if any, face-to-face contact.
· Adapt teaching styles taking into consideration the needs and expectations of multiple, often diverse, audiences.
· Develop a working understanding of delivery technology, while remaining focused on the teaching role.
· Function effectively as a skilled facilitator as well as content provider (Willis, guide 1, 2002).
Improved Planning and Organization
for Successful Implementation:
Before developing something new, check and review existing materials for content and presentation ideas (Willis, guide 2, 2002)
Hands-on training with the technology of delivery is critical for both teacher and students. Consider a pre-class session in which the class meets informally using the delivery technology and learns about the roles and responsibilities of technical support staff (Willis, guide 2, 2002).
At the start of class, initiate a frank discussion to set rules, guidelines, and standards. Once procedures have been established, consistently uphold them (Willis, guide 2, 2002).
By its very nature, distance education relies heavily on the individual students' ability to manage and control their personal and situational circumstances to be successful. Academic achievement correlates with more positive internal beliefs (Findley & Cooper, 1983; Phares, 1976; Riipinen, 1994). These include: competitiveness, motivation to learn for its own sake rather than for performance, and motivation to avoid failure (Eppler & Harju, 1997; Platow & Shave, 1995; Thorne, 1995).
In reflection, additional keys to success include:
a) the ability to balance student studies with other personal and work commitments;
b) comprehensive orientation to expectations and learning objectives;
c) universal and user-friendly technology support;
d) a positive attitude about overcoming obstacles and challenges;
e) record achievements, learnings and useful resources; and,
f) get appropriate training to master basic academic skills, such as library and writing skills is especially helpful.
For the adult learner, the principles of online learning are compatible with the strategies of adult learning that include: self-directed learning, using past experience as a resource base for learning, fitting new knowledge into current work and personal life situations, real-life problems-solving advantages, and time-management advantages for the time conscious student.
For teachers, facilitating a distance-learning program is a very different skill from lecturing or other forms of instruction in which the teacher dominates. Teachers need to be able to assess students' readiness for such learning and guide them from a position of dependence to independence. Teachers should provide a structure, in terms of offering guidance, checking plans, suggesting resources, and clarifying the basis on which work will be judged. Teachers have all heard the call "Back to Basics!" Effective strategies include:
a) creating an awareness of the strategy to be learned,
b) modeling the strategy,
c) providing practice in the use of the strategy, and,
d) applying the strategy in real-life situations.
The most in-depth and perhaps most important goal of teaching is to enhance comprehension, learning is more meaningful when students are active participants. We all remember best that in which we take an active part. Higher-level critical thinking skills are an important part of comprehension. Asking questions that cause students to use inductive thinking is important. Another strategy is to provide activities that are open ended and allow students the opportunity to come up with a variety of answers. In addition, having to explain how they arrived at their choice and discerning whether or not they have used logical thinking is also important to student development.
Conclusion
For the student eager to engage in the advantages and stimulation of an active adult learning environment distance learning education programs are highly advantageous. Few learning opportunities can provide the combination of enriched collaborative learning environments offered by a quality on-line environment with the freedom and flexibility advantages necessary for the success and inclusion of active professionals. In addition, the collegial support of cohort learning partners and professors with professional experience greatly enrich the environment, the learning challenge, and the learning outcomes.
Checkland defines systems thinking as: "an epistemology which, when applied to human activity is based upon the four basic ideas: emergence, hierarchy, communication, and control as characteristics of systems. When applied to natural or designed systems the crucial characteristic is the emergent properties of the whole" (Checkland, 1999, p. 318). Systems theory emphasizes the capacity to realize the relationships, structures and patterns of the whole, versus segmentation and analysis of separate parts (Checkland, 1999; Senge, 1990). Understanding systems theory allows for the witnessing of system-based relationships contributing to cause and effect reactions versus the alternative of focusing on the outcome symptoms. “Research comparing distance education to traditional face-to-face instruction indicates that teaching and studying at a distance can be as effective as traditional instruction, when the method and technologies used are appropriate to the instructional tasks, there is student-to-student interaction, and when there is timely teacher-to-student feedback (Moore & Thompson, 1990; Verduin & Clark, 1991)” (Willis, guide 1, 2002).
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About the Authors
Denise Land is Deputy Director of the Child Abuse Prevention Council of Placer County. She is responsible for fund development, finance administration, multi-agency collaboration and integration strategies, fee reimbursement strategies, and family support program technical assistance. Ms. Land has had experience working with diverse communities, particularly in the areas of child development and child abuse prevention and intervention. She holds an MSW and a BS in Gerontology. She is currently a Doctor of Management student at the University of Phoenix.
Anthony Chiedu Nwadei is a doctoral candidate of the University of Phoenix Doctor of Management, Organizational Leadership online program. He holds a B.Sc. (Hons.) and M.Sc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering and MBA.
Scott Dwain Stufflebeam is a consultant and an attorney focusing upon organizations, human resources, and real estate. He was president of First American Title Company with over twenty years of experience in management. He is currently enrolled in the doctorate program at University of Phoenix.
Cyril Olaka is a business consultant in Dallas, Texas. He attended Minnesota State University, Mankato, Minnesota, where he obtained Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree in March 1985. He also obtained Bachelor of Science degree in February 1993 and Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics in March 1995 from Bemidji State University, Bemidji, Minnesota. He is currently pursuing Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership in University of Phoenix.
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