Systems analysis is the method of the path of the process.
Historical perspective can be modulated to examine the intracies of the process and the development of the time associated steps in which the influences of the boundaries were affective.
Wednesday, September 1, 2010
Historical Perspective/ Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is taken in the componential step-wise formation of the logic and the expertise of the individual perspective. I feel that at this time I have begun a Blogspot which will bring into perpsective the finer points of the realities which have driven the following societies: American, Japanese and British.
Tuesday, August 24, 2010
Margith Strand
The series of Grounded Theory is the fact of the knowledge and the basis of the rhythymn in the cognition of the logic of the mind.
Saturday, July 24, 2010
Humanism for me and you:) By Margith A. Strand Fielding Graduate University
1. Emphasis on the process of learning; it is my contention that learning is the medium in Distance Education.
2. Self-determination, as reflected in learner autonomy, self- direction, and self-evaluation; this concept is emphasized in the Loci of Control idea in that the three state variables, the inquiry-advocacy, positivity-negativity and other self (internal-external) supports the self-evaluation process. The inquiry-advocacy is an internal mechanism of assisting the learner to evaluate the material in a way of examination and re-evaluation and subsequent reinforcement.
3. Mutual caring and understanding among teachers, learners, and others (connectedness); the concept of inquiry-advocacy can extend into the Group-Context arrangement and allow for collaborative construction of learning.
4. Relevance of material, including readiness of the student to learn; the sense of acceptance into the platform can benefit the learning process by veering away from the emphasis on the dependency on the experiential construct.
5. Integration of affect and cognition in the teaching-learning process;
6. An "awareness of the environment, culture, history, and the political and economic conditions in which learning takes place" (Shapiro, 1987, p. 160);
7. Preference for affective and experiential learning approaches;
8. An approach to social change that is anti-authoritarian with the intent to "serve society by improving its education institutions" (p. 160); this is the Discourse section offered in the traditional schools and needs to be further implemented into the structure of distance education.
Social Justice needs to be the “cause and effect” construction of the endeavor as indicated by the experience of the author of this paper. Discourse is gained from experience and the end-result is the benefit of the “experience of having taken the courses online” where the student-learner gains in experiential contexts as a result of his or her studies and affects his or her life in much the same way that traditional students do in their life.
9. Equity, consensus, and collaboration through democratic participation in the learning process;
10. A personal growth orientation that stresses self-actualization via self-awareness; this is a step-wise learned process of individual exploration and search into the constructs of life in general. It is an expression of the Maslowian levels and as a system of learning theories, has a certain amount of brevity within the design of the Humanistic model.
11. A people orientation based on trust and a positive view of humanity, such as is reflected in McGregor's (1960) "Theory Y"; discussed earlier.
12. Emphasis on individualism; and also on the Group-Context.
13. A concrete, pragmatic view of reality;
14. Self-evaluation that emphasizes formative over summative evaluation; this section can support the concept of “increase of worth.” The sense that knowledge is a commodity and the value of the commodity is presented as being the extent of “self-worth.” This concept alone can allow for a self-supporting mechanism and elevate the motivational limits that we experience in the class system.
15. Variety and creativity, as reflected in spontaneity, originality, and diversity in learning; this is indicative of “situated meanings,” as expressed in semiotic theory, and also indicates discourse.
The above are the true objectives of the distance learning platform, and is the desired outcome in any online course format.
16. A transpersonal orientation that stresses holistic development of the person, including potential for spirituality. In the Humanistic model, we find that the emotion construct is the pathway for the development of maturity and self-worth; where both are the desired outcomes for any distance learner.
References
Brockett, R. G. & Hiemstra, R. (1991) Self-Direction in Adult Learning: Perspectives on theory, research and practice. London and New York: Routledge
McGregor, D.M. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill
Shapiro, S. B. (1987). The instructional values of humanistic educators: An expanded empirical analysis. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 25(3), 155-170.
Strand, Margith A.(2010) Humanism for me and you/ Fielding Graduate University/Higher Education and Grounded Theory Concentration/ Ed.D. Program
2. Self-determination, as reflected in learner autonomy, self- direction, and self-evaluation; this concept is emphasized in the Loci of Control idea in that the three state variables, the inquiry-advocacy, positivity-negativity and other self (internal-external) supports the self-evaluation process. The inquiry-advocacy is an internal mechanism of assisting the learner to evaluate the material in a way of examination and re-evaluation and subsequent reinforcement.
3. Mutual caring and understanding among teachers, learners, and others (connectedness); the concept of inquiry-advocacy can extend into the Group-Context arrangement and allow for collaborative construction of learning.
4. Relevance of material, including readiness of the student to learn; the sense of acceptance into the platform can benefit the learning process by veering away from the emphasis on the dependency on the experiential construct.
5. Integration of affect and cognition in the teaching-learning process;
6. An "awareness of the environment, culture, history, and the political and economic conditions in which learning takes place" (Shapiro, 1987, p. 160);
7. Preference for affective and experiential learning approaches;
8. An approach to social change that is anti-authoritarian with the intent to "serve society by improving its education institutions" (p. 160); this is the Discourse section offered in the traditional schools and needs to be further implemented into the structure of distance education.
Social Justice needs to be the “cause and effect” construction of the endeavor as indicated by the experience of the author of this paper. Discourse is gained from experience and the end-result is the benefit of the “experience of having taken the courses online” where the student-learner gains in experiential contexts as a result of his or her studies and affects his or her life in much the same way that traditional students do in their life.
9. Equity, consensus, and collaboration through democratic participation in the learning process;
10. A personal growth orientation that stresses self-actualization via self-awareness; this is a step-wise learned process of individual exploration and search into the constructs of life in general. It is an expression of the Maslowian levels and as a system of learning theories, has a certain amount of brevity within the design of the Humanistic model.
11. A people orientation based on trust and a positive view of humanity, such as is reflected in McGregor's (1960) "Theory Y"; discussed earlier.
12. Emphasis on individualism; and also on the Group-Context.
13. A concrete, pragmatic view of reality;
14. Self-evaluation that emphasizes formative over summative evaluation; this section can support the concept of “increase of worth.” The sense that knowledge is a commodity and the value of the commodity is presented as being the extent of “self-worth.” This concept alone can allow for a self-supporting mechanism and elevate the motivational limits that we experience in the class system.
15. Variety and creativity, as reflected in spontaneity, originality, and diversity in learning; this is indicative of “situated meanings,” as expressed in semiotic theory, and also indicates discourse.
The above are the true objectives of the distance learning platform, and is the desired outcome in any online course format.
16. A transpersonal orientation that stresses holistic development of the person, including potential for spirituality. In the Humanistic model, we find that the emotion construct is the pathway for the development of maturity and self-worth; where both are the desired outcomes for any distance learner.
References
Brockett, R. G. & Hiemstra, R. (1991) Self-Direction in Adult Learning: Perspectives on theory, research and practice. London and New York: Routledge
McGregor, D.M. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill
Shapiro, S. B. (1987). The instructional values of humanistic educators: An expanded empirical analysis. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 25(3), 155-170.
Strand, Margith A.(2010) Humanism for me and you/ Fielding Graduate University/Higher Education and Grounded Theory Concentration/ Ed.D. Program
Friday, July 23, 2010
Means-End Analysis/
Means-End Analysis involves:
1. Describe the desired outcome.
2. Define the goals necessary to reach the end state.
a. Global objects, traits, skills, behaviors, or specific conditions that characterize the goal(s).
3. Describe the current state.
4. Analyze the means necessary to get the desired outcome.
5. Construct and implement a plan.
6. Review, evaluate, and refine the plan.
Data Collection Plan
Ask yourself the following questions as you decide what data to collect. You may start your research with specific data in mind but you may realize that other data will help corroborate or clarify.
What information would help answer your research question? What data collection would generate the information?
In what ways does group work on a computer influence student decision-making?
Types of questions asked during group work Tape recording of student talk; field notes
Student’s opinions about working in groups Survey; interview
Development of content and/or thinking skills over course of study Student journals, assignments, test scores.
Theory or research about computer group work Literature
How do actions and reactions of participants shape what is possible, desirable and ethical?
DATA TYPE Who or What When
Reading literature
Interview
Listen
Observe
Measure
Record Time
Count Behaviors
Use Checklist
Implement Survey
Existing Data
Take photos or video
Record interactions
1. Describe the desired outcome.
2. Define the goals necessary to reach the end state.
a. Global objects, traits, skills, behaviors, or specific conditions that characterize the goal(s).
3. Describe the current state.
4. Analyze the means necessary to get the desired outcome.
5. Construct and implement a plan.
6. Review, evaluate, and refine the plan.
Data Collection Plan
Ask yourself the following questions as you decide what data to collect. You may start your research with specific data in mind but you may realize that other data will help corroborate or clarify.
What information would help answer your research question? What data collection would generate the information?
In what ways does group work on a computer influence student decision-making?
Types of questions asked during group work Tape recording of student talk; field notes
Student’s opinions about working in groups Survey; interview
Development of content and/or thinking skills over course of study Student journals, assignments, test scores.
Theory or research about computer group work Literature
How do actions and reactions of participants shape what is possible, desirable and ethical?
DATA TYPE Who or What When
Reading literature
Interview
Listen
Observe
Measure
Record Time
Count Behaviors
Use Checklist
Implement Survey
Existing Data
Take photos or video
Record interactions
Thursday, July 22, 2010
Balance Scale /Cognitive Application to Distance Education/Connection in idea to original article by Margith A. Strand
1. Introduction
Although connectionist network models have become well known for their ability to simulate low level perceptual, learning, and memory phenomena, it has been unclear whetherthey would be suitable for modeling aspects of higher level psychological processes andtheir development. The recent appearance of a variety of interesting connectionist models of human development suggests some degree of applicability (Chauvin 1989; Elman, 1991;Harnad, Hanson, & Lubin, 1991; MacWhinney, Leinbach, Taraban, & McDonald, 1989;McClelland, 1989; Plunkett & Marchman, 1991; Schyns, 1991).
In addition to these new empirical results with connectionist modeling, a number of recent theoretical papers have argued that the application of connectionist models to cognitive development has fostered a return to the long neglected, but traditional concerns of developmental transition (Bates & Elman, 1993; Plunkett & Sinha, 1992; Shultz, 1991). The twin issues of structure and transition have tended to dominate developmental psychology.
Whereas structural issues concern the description and diagnosis of abilities at various stages, transition issues concern the mechanisms by which the child moves from one stage to the next. Because transition has proven to be such a difficult problem, developmental psychologists have tended to ignore it in favor of more tractable diagnostic studies of children's cognition. Likewise, cognitive modelers have typically had greater success modeling processing at various stages than with transitions between stages.
In the present paper, we report on a connectionist model of cognitive development on balance scale phenomena, emphasizing both structural and transition issues.
* Denis Mareschal is now at the Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford. William Schmidt is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario.
Authors: THOMAS R. SHULTZ, DENIS MARESCHAL,* AND WILLIAM C. SCHMIDT
Department of Psychology and McGill Cognitive Science Centre, McGill University
Title of Paper: Modeling Cognitive Development on Balance
Scale Phenomena
Google/July 22, 2010
Although connectionist network models have become well known for their ability to simulate low level perceptual, learning, and memory phenomena, it has been unclear whetherthey would be suitable for modeling aspects of higher level psychological processes andtheir development. The recent appearance of a variety of interesting connectionist models of human development suggests some degree of applicability (Chauvin 1989; Elman, 1991;Harnad, Hanson, & Lubin, 1991; MacWhinney, Leinbach, Taraban, & McDonald, 1989;McClelland, 1989; Plunkett & Marchman, 1991; Schyns, 1991).
In addition to these new empirical results with connectionist modeling, a number of recent theoretical papers have argued that the application of connectionist models to cognitive development has fostered a return to the long neglected, but traditional concerns of developmental transition (Bates & Elman, 1993; Plunkett & Sinha, 1992; Shultz, 1991). The twin issues of structure and transition have tended to dominate developmental psychology.
Whereas structural issues concern the description and diagnosis of abilities at various stages, transition issues concern the mechanisms by which the child moves from one stage to the next. Because transition has proven to be such a difficult problem, developmental psychologists have tended to ignore it in favor of more tractable diagnostic studies of children's cognition. Likewise, cognitive modelers have typically had greater success modeling processing at various stages than with transitions between stages.
In the present paper, we report on a connectionist model of cognitive development on balance scale phenomena, emphasizing both structural and transition issues.
* Denis Mareschal is now at the Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford. William Schmidt is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario.
Authors: THOMAS R. SHULTZ, DENIS MARESCHAL,* AND WILLIAM C. SCHMIDT
Department of Psychology and McGill Cognitive Science Centre, McGill University
Title of Paper: Modeling Cognitive Development on Balance
Scale Phenomena
Google/July 22, 2010
Problem Space/Thought Processes/ Basics/July 22, 2010
Thought processes/Google(Problem Space/ July 22, 2010)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------"Cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am). These words of Descartes sum up the importance of thought processes in humans and probably the most important reason we differ from animals. Although animals retrieve and store information, there is little evidence to suggest that they can use it in quite the same way as humans. Humans, on the other hand, are able to use information to reason and solve problems, even when the information is partial or unavailable.
Thinking can be categorized into reasoning and problem solving. Although these are not distinct they are helpful in clarifying the processes involved.
Reasoning
Reasoning is the process by which we use the knowledge we have to draw conclusions or infer something we know about the domain of interest. Reasoning is classified as being deductive, inductive or abductive. Deductive reasoning involves deciding what must be true given the rules of logic and some starting set of facts(premises). Inductive reasoning involves deciding what is likely to be true given some starting set of beliefs or observations.
Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning derives the logically necessary conclusion from the given premises. It is important to note that it can lead to a logical conclusion which conflicts with our knowledge of the world.
For example,
If it is raining then the ground is dry.
It is raining.
Therefore the ground is dry.
is a perfectly valid deduction ! Deductive reasoning is therefore often misapplied. Human deduction is at its poorest when truth and validity clash. This is because people bring their knowledge of the real world into the reasoning process as it allows them to takeshort cuts which make information processing more efficient.
Inductive reasoning
Induction is generalizing from cases we have seen to infer information about cases we haven't. For instance, if all the dogs that we have seen are white, we may infer that all dogs are white in colour. This is disproved when we see a black dog ! In the absence of counter examples, all that we can do is gather evidence to support our inductive inference. In spite of its unreliablity, induction is a useful process which we use constantly in learning about our environment.
Abductive reasoning
Abduction reasons from a fact to the action that caused it. This is the method we use to derive explanations for the events we observe. This kind of reasoning, although useful, can lead to unreliability as an action preceding an event can be wrongly attributed as the cause of the event.
Problem solving
Problem solving is the process of finding a solution to an unfamiliar task, using the knowledge we have. There are a number of different views of how people solve problems. We shall consider two of the more recent and influential views: Gestalt theory and the problem space theory.
Gestalt theory
Gestalt theory claims that problem solving is productive and reproductive. Reproductive problem solving draws on previous experiences whereas productive problem solving involves insight and restructuring of the problem. Reproductive problem solving could be a hindrance to finding a solution, since a person may fixate on the known aspects of a problem and so be unable to see novel interpretations that might lead to a solution.
A well known example of this is Maier's `pendulum problem'. The problem was to tie together pieces of string hanging from the ceiling. However , they were far too apart to catch hold of both at once. The room was full of other objects including pliers, poles and extensions. Although various solutions were proposed by participants, few chose to use the weight of the pliers as a pendulum to swing the strings together. However, when the experimenter brushed against the string, setting it in motion, a lot of participants came up with the idea. This can be interpreted as an example of productive restructuring. This experiment also illustrates fixation: participants were unable to see any meothd beyond the use of a pair of pliers.
The illustration above shows another example of Gestalt theory. In the picture above (I) naturally can be perceived as a collection of 36 points, like one is supposed to do in picture (II), but everybody is well disposed to see six columns of points, while in picture (III) one tends to see six rows. The way how a Gestalt (meaningful whole) arises from a set of simplexes is one of the main subjects explored by Gestalt Theory.
However, Gestalt theory does not provide sufficient evidence or structure to support its theories.
Problem space theory
The problem space theory was proposed by Newell and Simon. The theory says that problem solving centers around the problem space. This space comprises of problem states which can be generated using legal transition operators.
For example, imagine you are reorganizing your office and you want to move the desk from one end to another. The two different states are represented by the locations of the desk. A number of operators can be applied to move these things: they can be carried, pushed, dragged etc. In order to ease the transition between the states, you have a new sub-goal: to make the desk light. These may involve operators such as removing drawers and so on.
Within the problem space framework, experience allows us to solve problems more easily since we can structure the problem space appropriately and choose operators efficiently.
Analogy in problem solving
People solve novel problems by mapping knowledge in a similar known domain, to it. For instance, to destroy malignant tumour it is essential to fire low intensity rays from all sides, as high intensity rays can damage heathy tissues. An analogous case is that of attacking a fortress. However, people miss analogous information unless it is semantically close to the problem domain.
Skill acquisition
Skills in a given problem area differentiate the novice from the expert. A commonly studied domain is chess playing. It is particularly suitable since it lends itself to representation in terms of problem space thoery, in which the intial board configuration and the final position constitute the states while the moves appeared as transition operators. Masters took lesser time than novices to react to a situtation and produced better moves. This is largely because chess masters remember board configurations and good moves associated with them. They can chunk the board configuration in order to hold it in short-term memory.
Skilled behavior becomes automatic over a period of time. Experts tend to mentally rehearse their actions in order to identify exactly what they do. Although such skilled behavior is efficient it may cause errors when the context of the activity changes.
Individual differences
The psychological principles and properties that have been discussed apply to the majority of people. However, there are individual differences which affect a small percentage. The differences may be long term such as sex, physical capabilities and individual capabilities. Others are for a shorter duration and may include the effects of stress or failure on the user. Still others may change through time such as age. These differences should be taken into account in interface designs to enusre that a greater population of users is benefited.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------"Cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am). These words of Descartes sum up the importance of thought processes in humans and probably the most important reason we differ from animals. Although animals retrieve and store information, there is little evidence to suggest that they can use it in quite the same way as humans. Humans, on the other hand, are able to use information to reason and solve problems, even when the information is partial or unavailable.
Thinking can be categorized into reasoning and problem solving. Although these are not distinct they are helpful in clarifying the processes involved.
Reasoning
Reasoning is the process by which we use the knowledge we have to draw conclusions or infer something we know about the domain of interest. Reasoning is classified as being deductive, inductive or abductive. Deductive reasoning involves deciding what must be true given the rules of logic and some starting set of facts(premises). Inductive reasoning involves deciding what is likely to be true given some starting set of beliefs or observations.
Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning derives the logically necessary conclusion from the given premises. It is important to note that it can lead to a logical conclusion which conflicts with our knowledge of the world.
For example,
If it is raining then the ground is dry.
It is raining.
Therefore the ground is dry.
is a perfectly valid deduction ! Deductive reasoning is therefore often misapplied. Human deduction is at its poorest when truth and validity clash. This is because people bring their knowledge of the real world into the reasoning process as it allows them to takeshort cuts which make information processing more efficient.
Inductive reasoning
Induction is generalizing from cases we have seen to infer information about cases we haven't. For instance, if all the dogs that we have seen are white, we may infer that all dogs are white in colour. This is disproved when we see a black dog ! In the absence of counter examples, all that we can do is gather evidence to support our inductive inference. In spite of its unreliablity, induction is a useful process which we use constantly in learning about our environment.
Abductive reasoning
Abduction reasons from a fact to the action that caused it. This is the method we use to derive explanations for the events we observe. This kind of reasoning, although useful, can lead to unreliability as an action preceding an event can be wrongly attributed as the cause of the event.
Problem solving
Problem solving is the process of finding a solution to an unfamiliar task, using the knowledge we have. There are a number of different views of how people solve problems. We shall consider two of the more recent and influential views: Gestalt theory and the problem space theory.
Gestalt theory
Gestalt theory claims that problem solving is productive and reproductive. Reproductive problem solving draws on previous experiences whereas productive problem solving involves insight and restructuring of the problem. Reproductive problem solving could be a hindrance to finding a solution, since a person may fixate on the known aspects of a problem and so be unable to see novel interpretations that might lead to a solution.
A well known example of this is Maier's `pendulum problem'. The problem was to tie together pieces of string hanging from the ceiling. However , they were far too apart to catch hold of both at once. The room was full of other objects including pliers, poles and extensions. Although various solutions were proposed by participants, few chose to use the weight of the pliers as a pendulum to swing the strings together. However, when the experimenter brushed against the string, setting it in motion, a lot of participants came up with the idea. This can be interpreted as an example of productive restructuring. This experiment also illustrates fixation: participants were unable to see any meothd beyond the use of a pair of pliers.
The illustration above shows another example of Gestalt theory. In the picture above (I) naturally can be perceived as a collection of 36 points, like one is supposed to do in picture (II), but everybody is well disposed to see six columns of points, while in picture (III) one tends to see six rows. The way how a Gestalt (meaningful whole) arises from a set of simplexes is one of the main subjects explored by Gestalt Theory.
However, Gestalt theory does not provide sufficient evidence or structure to support its theories.
Problem space theory
The problem space theory was proposed by Newell and Simon. The theory says that problem solving centers around the problem space. This space comprises of problem states which can be generated using legal transition operators.
For example, imagine you are reorganizing your office and you want to move the desk from one end to another. The two different states are represented by the locations of the desk. A number of operators can be applied to move these things: they can be carried, pushed, dragged etc. In order to ease the transition between the states, you have a new sub-goal: to make the desk light. These may involve operators such as removing drawers and so on.
Within the problem space framework, experience allows us to solve problems more easily since we can structure the problem space appropriately and choose operators efficiently.
Analogy in problem solving
People solve novel problems by mapping knowledge in a similar known domain, to it. For instance, to destroy malignant tumour it is essential to fire low intensity rays from all sides, as high intensity rays can damage heathy tissues. An analogous case is that of attacking a fortress. However, people miss analogous information unless it is semantically close to the problem domain.
Skill acquisition
Skills in a given problem area differentiate the novice from the expert. A commonly studied domain is chess playing. It is particularly suitable since it lends itself to representation in terms of problem space thoery, in which the intial board configuration and the final position constitute the states while the moves appeared as transition operators. Masters took lesser time than novices to react to a situtation and produced better moves. This is largely because chess masters remember board configurations and good moves associated with them. They can chunk the board configuration in order to hold it in short-term memory.
Skilled behavior becomes automatic over a period of time. Experts tend to mentally rehearse their actions in order to identify exactly what they do. Although such skilled behavior is efficient it may cause errors when the context of the activity changes.
Individual differences
The psychological principles and properties that have been discussed apply to the majority of people. However, there are individual differences which affect a small percentage. The differences may be long term such as sex, physical capabilities and individual capabilities. Others are for a shorter duration and may include the effects of stress or failure on the user. Still others may change through time such as age. These differences should be taken into account in interface designs to enusre that a greater population of users is benefited.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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