The Reliability of Concept Mapping
William M.K. Trochim
Cornell University
DRAFT: Not for quotation or citation. Comments would be greatly appreciated.
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Evaluation Association, Dallas, Texas, November 6, 1993. This research was supported in part through NIMH Grant R01MH46712-01A1, William M.K. Trochim, Principal Investigator.
Abstract
Because of the growing interest in and use of the concept mapping methodology, it is important to define rigorous and feasible standards of quality. This paper addresses the issue of the reliability of concept mapping. Six different reliability coefficients that can easily be estimated from the data typically available from any concept mapping project were defined and estimated for 38 different concept mapping projects. Results indicate that the concept mapping process can be considered reliable according to generally-recognized standards for acceptable reliability levels. It is recommended that the reliabilities estimated here be routinely reported with concept mapping project results.
The Reliability of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a process that can be used to help a group describe its ideas on any topic of interest (Trochim, 1989a). The process typically requires the participants to brainstorm a large set of statements relevant to the topic of interest, individually sort these statements into piles of similar ones and rate each statement on some scale, and interpret the maps that result from the data analyses. The analyses typically include a two-dimensional multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the unstructured sort data, a hierarchical cluster analysis of the MDS coordinates, and the computation of average ratings for each statement and cluster of statements. The maps that result show the individual statements in two-dimensional (x,y) space with more similar statements located nearer each other, and show how the statements are grouped into clusters that partition the space on the map. Participants are led through a structured interpretation session designed to help them understand the maps and label them in a substantively meaningful way.
The concept mapping process as discussed here was first described by Trochim and Linton (1986). Trochim (1989a) delineates the process in detail and Trochim (1989b) presents a wide range of example projects. Concept mapping has received considerable use and appears to be growing in popularity. It has been used to address substantive issues in the social services (Galvin, 1989; Mannes, 1989), mental health (Cook, 1992; Kane, 1992; Lassegard, 1993; Marquart, 1988; Marquart, 1992; Marquart et al, 1993; Penney, 1992; Ryan and Pursley, 1992; Shern, 1992; Trochim, 1989a; Trochim and Cook, 1992; Trochim et al, in press; Valentine, 1992), health care (Valentine, 1989), education (Grayson, 1993; Kohler, 1992; Kohler, 1993), educational administration (Gurowitz et al, 1988), and theory development (Linton, 1989). Considerable methodological work on the concept mapping process and its potential utility has also been accomplished (Bragg and Grayson, 1993; Caracelli, 1989; Cooksy, 1989; Davis, 1989; Dumont, 1989; Grayson, 1992; Keith, 1989; Lassegard, 1992; Marquart, 1989; Mead and Bowers, 1992; Mercer, 1992; SenGupta, 1993; Trochim, 1985 , 1989c, 1990).
Given the broad and apparently increasing utilization of the concept mapping method, it is increasingly important that issues related to the quality of the process be investigated. In most social science research, the quality of the measurement is assessed through estimation of reliability and validity. This paper considers only the reliability of concept mapping.
The traditional theory of reliability typically applied in social research does not fit the concept mapping model well. That theory assumes that for each test item there is a correct answer that is known a priori. The performance of each individual is measured on each question and coded correct or incorrect. Data are typically stored in a rectangular matrix with the rows being persons and the columns test items. Reliability assessment focuses on the test questions or on the total score of the test. That is, we can meaningfully estimate the reliability of each test item, or of the total score.
Concept mapping involves a different emphasis altogether. There is no assumed correct answer or correct sort. Instead, it is assumed that there may be some normatively typical arrangement of the statements that is reflected imperfectly in the sorts of all members who come from the same relatively homogeneous (with respect to the construct of interest) cultural group. The emphasis in reliability assessment shifts from the item to the person. For purposes of reliability assessment, the structure of the data matrix is reversed, with persons as the columns and items (or pairs of items) as the rows. Reliability assessment focuses on the consistency across the assumed relatively homogeneous set of participants. In this sense, it is meaningful to speak of the reliability of the similarity matrix or the reliability of the map in concept mapping, but not of the reliability of individual statements.
This paper presents several ways of estimating the reliability or consistency of concept mapping. The various estimates of reliability are illustrated on data from a large heterogeneous group of prior concept mapping projects. The distributions of reliability estimates across many projects provide realistic estimates of the level of reliability one might expect in typical field applications of concept mapping.
The Concept Mapping Process
Traditional presentations of concept mapping describe it as a six-step process as depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The six steps in the concept mapping process.
During the preparation step, the focus for the concept mapping is operationalized, participants are selected, and a schedule is developed. The generation step is usually accomplished through a simple brainstorming (Osborn, 1948) of a large set of statements related to the focus. In the structuring step, each participant completes an unstructured sorting (Rosenberg and Kim, 1975; Weller and Romney, 1988) of the statements into piles of similar ones, and rates each statement on some dimension of relevance. The representation step consists of the major statistical analyses. The analysis begins with construction from the sort information of an NxN (where N is the total number of statements) binary, symmetric matrix of similarities, SNxN for each participant. For any two items i and j, a 1 is placed in Sij if the two items were placed in the same pile by the participant, otherwise a 0 is entered (Weller and Romney, 1988, p. 22). The construction of this individual matrix is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The construction of the binary 0,1 similarity matrix, SNxN, for each sort in concept mapping.
The total NxN similarity matrix, TNxN is obtained by summing across the individual SNxN matrices. Thus, any cell in this matrix can take integer values between 0 and M (where M is the total number of people who sorted the statements); the value indicates the number of people who placed the i,j pair in the same pile. The total similarity matrix TNxN is analyzed using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis (Kruskal and Wish, 1978; Davison, 1983) with a two-dimensional solution. The solution is limited to two dimensions because, as Kruskal and Wish (1978) point out:
Since it is generally easier to work with two-dimensional configurations than with those involving more dimensions, ease of use considerations are also important for decisions about dimensionality. For example, when an MDS configuration is desired primarily as the foundation on which to display clustering results, then a two-dimensional configuration is far more useful than one involving three or more dimensions (p. 58).
The analysis yields a two-dimensional XNx2 configuration of the set of N statements based on the criterion that statements piled together most often are located more proximately in two-dimensional space while those piled together less frequently are further apart.
This two-dimensional configuration is the input for the hierarchical cluster analysis utilizing Ward's algorithm (Everitt, 1980) as the basis for defining a cluster. Using the MDS configuration as input to the cluster analysis in effect forces the cluster analysis to partition the MDS configuration into non-overlapping clusters in two-dimensional space. In the interpretation step, the participant group is guided by the facilitator through a structured process that familiarizes them with the various maps and enables them to attach meaningful substantive labels to various locations on the map. Finally, in the utilization step, the participants discuss specific ways the maps can be used to help address the original focus of the project.
Because the concept mapping process is so complex, it is difficult to conceive of a single overall reliability coefficient. For instance, it would be theoretically feasible to ask about the reliability of any of the six phases of the process independent of the others. Nevertheless, it is clear that the central product of the concept mapping process is the two-dimensional map itself and, consequently, efforts to address reliability are well-directed to the central phases of the analysis, the structuring and representation steps. In this paper, the focus is on methods for estimating the reliability of the sort data and of the two-dimensional MDS map that results.
Estimates of the Reliability of Concept Mapping
The key components of the concept mapping process available for estimating various reliabilities are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The key components in the concept mapping data and the related reliability estimates.
The figure assumes a hypothetical project involving ten participants (M=10), each of whom sorted and rated the set of N statements. We see that for each sort, there is a corresponding binary symmetric similarity matrix, SNxN. These are aggregated into the total matrix, TNxN. This total matrix is the input to the MDS analysis which yields a two-dimensional XNx2 configuration. The Euclidean distances (in two dimensions) between all pairs of statements can be computed directly from the two-dimensional matrix, yielding a distance matrix DNxN where:
The ratings are analyzed separate from the sort data, as indicated in the figure.
Although the assumptions underlying reliability theory for concept mapping are different from traditional reliability theory, the methods for estimating reliability would be familiar to traditionalists. Several common reliability estimators are considered below. From these, a subset set of estimators is selected that can readily be obtained from the data for any typical concept mapping project.
One common estimator of reliability is the test-retest correlation. Typically, respondent scores on successive administrations of a test are correlated to estimate the degree of consistency in repeated testings. In concept mapping, this could be accomplished by asking the same participants to sort the statements on two separate occasions. Two reliability coefficients could be computed. One would involve the correlation between the aggregated similarity matrix, TNxN (the input to MDS) on both occasions. The other would be the correlation between the two MDS maps that result (specifically, the correlation between the distances between all pairs of points on the two maps, DNxN). The test-retest correlation has several disadvantages as a reliability estimator in a concept mapping context. It assumes that participants do not change with respect to what is being measured (or change only in a linear fashion) between testings and that the first testing does not affect the response on the second. More practically, the test-retest method requires twice the data collection. Participants would usually need to be assembled on separate days, significantly increasing the costs and feasibility of a project. Although the test-retest reliability estimate should be used where practicable, it is not used here to estimate reliability.
A second traditional way to estimate reliability would be to divide the set of test items into two random subtests and compute the correlation for these across the participants. This "split half" reliability can also be accomplished for the concept mapping case. Here, one would divide the participant group randomly into two subgroups, labeled A and B. Separate similarity matrices (TA and TB) and MDS maps (XA and XB) can be computed for each subgroup, as shown in Figure 3. By correlating them, one can then estimate the split half reliability of the similarity matrix and of the map that results. The split half reliability has the advantage of being relatively easy to compute from any concept mapping data. Both split half reliabilities are studied here.
In traditional reliability estimation, Cronbach's alpha is often used and is considered equivalent to computing all possible split half reliabilities. This would clearly be superior to the simple split half estimator, but there is no known way to estimate alpha for the matrix data used in concept mapping. Even if one could accomplish this for the sort data, one would need to compute MDS maps for each potential split half in order to estimate the equivalent to Cronbach's alpha -- clearly a prohibitively time consuming proposition. For this reason, no Cronbach's alpha estimate of reliability is considered here.
Another traditional reliability estimate involves the degree to which each test item correlates with the total score across all items on the test. This average item-total reliability has an analogue in concept mapping. One can compute the correlation between each person's binary sort matrix, SNxN, and the total similarity matrix, TNxN, and between each person's binary sort matrix, SNxN, and the distances on the final map, DNxN. These will be labeled here the Average Individual-to-Total reliability and the Average Individual-to-Map reliability.
A final traditional reliability estimate is based on the average of the correlations among items on a scale, or the average interitem correlation. It is possible to perform an analogous analysis with concept mapping data, on both the sorting and rating data. These will be termed here the average Individual-to-Individual sort and the average Rating-to-Rating reliabilities.
Most of the estimation methods described above (except for test-retest and Cronbach's alpha) rely on calculations that are based on only part of the total available sample of participants. For instance, the split-half reliability has an effective sample size of one-half the total number of participants. The three averaged estimates are even worse off, relying on only a single individual or pair as the effective sample size for each element entered into the average. Since we know that reliability is affected by the number of items on a test (or persons in a concept mapping project), these correlations based on only part of the participant sample do not accurately reflect the correlational value we would expect for the entire participant sample. This is traditionally corrected for in reliability estimation by applying the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula (Nunnally, 1978, p. 211):
where:
rij = the correlation estimated from the data
k = N/n where N is the total sample size and n is the sample size on which rij is based
rkk = the estimated Spearman-Brown corrected reliability
In sum, there appear to be several reliability estimates that can be routinely constructed from any concept mapping data. All of them require use of the Spearman-Brown correction. They are:
1. The Split-Half Total matrix reliability, rSHT
2. The Split-Half Map reliability, rSHM
3. The Average Individual-to-Total Reliability, rIT.(k = N/1)
4. The Average Individual-to-Map Reliability, rIM.(k = N/1)
5. The Average Individual-to-Individual Sort Reliability, rII. (k = N/1)
6. The Average Rating-to-Rating Reliability, rRR.(k = N/1)
Method
Sample
Thirty-eight separate concept mapping projects conducted over the past two years constituted the sample for this reliability study. This is essentially exhaustive of the universe of all concept mapping projects conducted by the author over that time period. Almost all of the projects could be classified generally as in the area of social services research. Most (N=18) were in the field of mental health. Three were related to arts organization administration. There were two each in health and agriculture. Three were primarily focused on research methodology issues (such as the conceptualization of what is meant by measurement). There were 10 other studies that were classified generally as social services in nature. Procedure
All of the reliabilities calculated here are depicted graphically in Figure 3 above.
Split-Half Reliabilities. The set of sorts from each project was randomly divided into two halves (for odd-numbered participant groups, one group was randomly assigned one more person than the other). Separate concept maps were computed for each group. The total matrices, TA and TB, for each group were correlated and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to obtain rSHT. The Euclidean distances between all pairs of points on the two maps, DA and DB, were correlated and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to obtain rSHM.
Individual-to-Individual Sort Reliability. The SNxN matrices were correlated for all pairs of individuals. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rII.
Individual-to-Total Matrix Reliability. The SNxN sort matrix for each individual was correlated with the total matrix, TNxN. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rIT.
Individual-to-Map Reliability. The SNxN sort matrix for each individual was correlated with the Euclidean distances, DNxN. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rIM.
Average Inter-Sort Reliability. The correlation between the ratings for each pair of persons was computed. These correlations were averaged and the Spearman-Brown correction applied to yield rRR.
Results
Descriptive statistics for the thirty-eight concept mapping projects are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the number of statements, number of sorters, number of raters, and stress values for 38 concept mapping projects.
Number of Statements Number of Sorters Number of Raters
Stress Value
Number of Projects
38
37
37
33
Mean 83.84211 14.62162 13.94595 0.28527
Median 93.00000 14.00000 14.00000 0.29702
Minimum 39.00000 7.00000 6.00000 0.15526
Maximum 99.00000 32.00000 33.00000 0.35201
SD 17.99478 5.77038 5.69086 0.04360
On average, 83.8 statements were brainstormed across all projects, with a range from 39 to 99. Most projects achieved over 90 statements (median=93). There were an average of 14.62 sorters per project, very close to the typically recommended sample size of fifteen. The reason there are only 37 projects for the sorting is that two of the projects were related and used the same sort statements, with one of those doing only the ratings. Similarly, in one of the projects, no ratings were done. The last column shows that the average stress value across the projects was .285 (SD=.04). Stress is a statistic routinely reported for multidimensional scaling that reflects the goodness of fit of the map to the original dissimilarity matrix that served as input. A lower stress value implies a better fit. The multidimensional scaling literature suggests that a lower stress value is desired than is typically obtained in concept mapping. However, it must be remembered that the recommendations in the literature are typically based on experience with much more stable phenomena (e.g., physiological perception of color similarities), fewer entities, and more precise measurement methods (e.g., paired comparisons). The data summarized in Table 1 are important benchmarks that can act as reasonable standards for the level of stress that should be expected in typical field-based concept mapping projects.
Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for the stress values for the sample projects and for their split half samples.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the stress values for the entire project and the split-half samples for 38 concept mapping projects.
Stress Value Stress 1 -
Split Half Stress 2 -
Split Half
Number of Projects
33
33
33
Mean 0.28527 0.30013 0.29987
Median 0.29702 0.31421 0.31082
Minimum 0.15526 0.19962 0.14875
Maximum 0.35201 0.34437 0.36855
SD 0.04360 0.03772 0.04654
The major value of this table is that it gives some indication of the effect of sample size (i.e., number of sorters) on final stress values. Somewhat surprisingly, the table suggests that stress values based on sample sizes half as large are nearly as good as the full-sample values, suggesting that even smaller samples of sorters may produce maps that fit almost as well as samples twice as large.
The estimates of reliability are reported in Table 3.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for reliability estimates for 38 concept mapping projects.
rII rRR rIT rIM rSHT rSHM
Number of Projects
33
37
33
33
33
33
Mean 0.81507 0.78374 0.92965 0.86371 0.83330 0.55172
Median 0.82060 0.82120 0.93070 0.86280 0.84888 0.55881
Minimum 0.67040 0.42700 0.88230 0.74030 0.72493 0.25948
Maximum 0.93400 0.93540 0.97370 0.95490 0.93269 0.90722
SD 0.07016 0.12125 0.02207 0.04771 0.05485 0.15579
Three of the coefficients (i.e., rII, rIT, and rSHT) utilize only the individual sort matrices and the sum of these. The average individual-to-individual sort reliability value (rII) was .815, the average individual-to-total matrix value (rIT) was .929, and the average split-half total matrix reliability (rSHT) was .833. The only reliability estimate that involved rating values (rRR) yielded an average of .78. It is worth noting that one would typically not expect that there would be as much consistency across a group of persons on the ratings as on sortings. Finally, there were only two reliability estimates that included information from the final map. The average value of the relationship between individuals' sorts and the final map configuration (rIM) was .863. The split-half reliability of the final maps (rSHM) had an average value of .55.
Table 4 shows the relationship between the number of statements and sorters, and the various reliabilities.
Table 4. Correlations between number of statements and number of sorters and the various reliabilities.
Number of Statements Number of Sorts
rII -0.06232 0.54577
rIT -0.00714 0.59122
rIM -0.15390 0.61201
rSHT -0.15483 0.54921
rSHM -0.07697 0.21373
The number of statements is largely uncorrelated with reliability, although all coefficients are slightly negative. On the other hand, the number of sorters is positively correlated with reliabilities. This suggests that having more sorters in a concept mapping project can improve the overall reliability of the results.
Finally, the intercorrelations among the five sort-related reliability estimates are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Correlations between different reliability estimates.
rII rIT rIM rSHT
rIT 0.94030
rIM 0.78976 0.90937
rSHT 0.91925 0.90301 0.77444
rSHM 0.48329 0.59313 0.68700 0.57188
The correlations are all significantly positive, with the lowest correlations between the split-half map reliabilities and all others.
Discussion
The results indicate that the concept mapping method, when examined across a wide range of projects, yields reliable results as estimated by a number of acceptable reliability indicators.
While all reliability estimates were strongly positive, the split half estimate of the relationship between maps was clearly lower than the rest. It is not surprising that this value is lower. A simple analogy might explain why this is so. Imagine that we had data on a multi-item scale and that we divided the sample of respondents randomly into two halves. If we compute any estimate of reliability of the raw data, it is bound to be higher than estimates of reliability based on analyses that process that data. For instance, if we applied the same regression model or factor analytic model to both random split half samples and correlated the results of these analyses (e.g., the predicted regression values or factor analysis inter-item matrix), they would almost certainly be lower than any reliability based only on the original raw data.
The reliability estimates reported here are all easily calculable from the raw data available from any concept mapping project. These estimates should be reported routinely in write-ups of concept mapping results.
References
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Thursday, November 12, 2009
Concept Mapping- General-[Encyclopedia]- November 12, 2009
Descriptions, definitions, synonyms, organizer terms, types of
A graphic organizer is an instructional tool used to illustrate a student or class's prior knowledge about a topic or section of text
"Semantic Map, structured overview, web, concept map, semantic organizer, story map, graphic organizer...No matter what the special name, a graphic organizer is a VISUAL representation of knowledge. It is a way of structuring information, of arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels" (Bromley, Irwin-DeVitis,& Modlo, p. 6). Graphic organizers are one way of using Advance organizers.
Types of Graphic Organizers
Cause-Effect Chart
Classification Chart
Concept Web
KWL Chart
Matrix
Mind Map
SQ3R Chart
Sequence/Flow Chart
Spider Map
T-Chart
Thinking Tree
Time Line Chart
Two Story Map
Venn Diagram
In Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement, by Robert J. Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack, it is suggested that all graphic organizers can be placed into six common patterns:
Descriptive Patterns
Time-Sequence Patterns
Process/Cause-Effect Patterns
Episode Patterns
Generalization/Principle Patterns
Concept Patterns
Marzano feels that graphic organizers are the "most common way to help students generate nonlinguistic representation" (Marzano 75). Marzano also cites Educational Technology Research and Development by Gerlic & Jausovec (1999), where the authors write that "engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic representations stimulates and increases activity in th brain" (73). ""
See Links (below) for Printable Graphic Organizers, Makers, and Index of Graphic Organizers
Application in classrooms and similar settings
"Graphic organizers have been applied across a range of curriculum subject areas. Although reading is by far the most well studied application, science, social studies, language arts, and math are additional content areas that are represented in the research base on graphic organizers." (Hall & Strangman, 2005)
Point of Implementation
Before a new learning situation to set the stage, address prior knowledge, develop background or essential learning and guide thinking.
During a new learning situation to categorize and/or organize information, raise questions for consideration, predict solutions or conclusions;
After a new learning situation, to confirm or reject prior knowledge, relate new information to what was already known, extend new learning to other situations ;
With material already learned, a simple way to organize or outline learning or ideas;
When developing a piece of writing, as an effective means to organize thoughts or ideas.
To develop criticism or feedback during peer evaluation of projects or writing assignments.
Evidence of effectiveness
The studies reviewed by Tracey Hall and Niclole Strangman (2005) showed the use of graphic organizers improving comprehension and more significantly improving vocabulary knowledge. Hall and Strangman (2005) cite Moore and Readence (1984) to indicate that the use of graphic organizers has a greater effect when used after the learning material rather that before.
Relatively new is the research on computer-based graphic organizers, for example the use of the the software, Inspiration. A listing of studies supporting the effectiveness of graphic organizers on student learning is available from Inspiration, Visual Learning Research and an evaluation by the Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration, Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research (July 2003) also supports visual learning techniques supporting student learning and performance.
Critics and their rationale
While Graphic Organizers can be a huge help to visual learners, they can often be overused in the classroom and retard the learning of other students in the classroom. The visual representation of the information can take more time to construct and also lack the depth of organizational systems. Advanced students can become bored of what feels like excessive time wasted on making ideas easier to read when they already understood the concept. Forcing all students to use graphic organizers can repress the free thinking and creative of many students. It should be seen as an aid, not a foundation.
Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
Good teaching strategies are good for everyone!
Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
Testimonial by B. Moore
I have used graphic organizers to help me teach Jr. High Geography. Graphic organizers give students a purpose to their reading. Students who struggle in school often need this purpose to motivate themselves for the activity. I use Venn Diagrams the most in my classroom. It is a very easy format that works well when comparing and contrasting two countries, continents, landforms, culture, etc. These diagrams also are good prewriting activities for students. I have also used Inspiration to make concept maps for my students. This allows them to see how things in class are connected.
Testimonal by C.McCulley I have used graphic organizers and concept maps with my art students, especially during art critique. I find it helps them organize their thoughts before they speak about their artwork. We specifically focus on four things in an art critique Describe, Analyze, Discuss, and Interpret. I think having a visual model or image helps them to visual see connections between the artwork and the objectives of the assignment.
Testimonial by J. Vallowe
I have used concept maps in my biology classes. At first students need a lot of support in the construction of their maps. However, they become more proficient through practice and use of these maps. Students develop better relationships between concepts as evidenced in their verbal and written explanations. -- Janet Vallowe
Testimonial by H. Savoca
Using graphic organizers promotes organization of text, whether it be in reading or writing. Graphic organizers foster metacognition and offer techniques for sorting information. These templates help readers dissect information. They often incorporate signaling techniques or fit predetermined, common modalities of text prganiztaion/structure. I use graphic oragnizers in both writing and reading instruction in my classroom. Currently, I am using a "pillar" that guides students through writing expository essays, as well as a summary graphic oragnizer which allows my students to identify main ideas vs. insignificant details in reading passages, while enhancing retelling skills. I applaud the use of graphic organizers and find them to be an effective means of promoting learning in my classroom. --Heidi M. Savoca
Testimonial by N. Frick
Using graphic organizers has really helped me with my guided reading instruction. I have found that it gives students a focal point. As they are reading and thinking about what they have read, graphic organizers give students and easy way to organize their thoughts. I have also used a 4-square graphic organizer for writing expository and persuasive papers. The 4-square really helps struggling writers to get their thoughts in order, and it gives the better writers a good place to start from. With proper instruction and teacher modeling, graphic organizers are great resources for both students and teachers.\
Testimonial by N. Meeker
I use graphic organizeers before every writing assignment that I give my sixth graders. I have just received Inspiration and will use it next year with every student. I think it will be a major help for those students who have difficulty organizing their thoughts. Inspiration will much more quickly show them the possibilities. I also taught public speaking for many years and this program would have been beneficial in those classes also. We also use graphic organizers throughout the study of novels, beginning with KWL. we are currently studying Tom Sawyer and students are finding out that they cannot depend on the Hollywood version- that some of the things they thought they knew about the story are quite different in Mark Twain's original story. N. Meeker
Testimonial by D. Heater For part of a project I added an essay to a recent test. The coop teacher that I was working with was not sure her students would be able to write an essay as they had not needed to do so all year. We spent some time using graphic organizers to help them prepare first listing all the pertinant information and then putting it into a Venn diagram. On the test itself we gave them a chart to fill out prior to writing the essay. to this teachers surprise a vast majority of the students completed the essay, and did so well!
An excellent way to integrate technology into the classroom, related to graphic organizers, is to use Inspiration or Kidspiration software. Although the software is not free, it is very beneficial for the development of writing and higher order thinking. A nice feature of the software is the ability to switch between chart and outline formats. If an chart (graphic organizer) is edited the changes are automatically made in the outline and vice-versa. This allows students to use a graphic organizer to plan a story and then view the outline to begin writing.--Benish 22:34, 30 Apr 2005 (CDT)
Testimonial by Bonnie I have used graphic organizers for years. I find them highly effective. They are a good use of time and the students walk away from my instruction with information that is well organized and easily read. I teach science but much of my instruction begins with teaching my students to read and make sense of scientific information.
Testimonial by K. Kleckauskas:
I frequently use graphic organizers in both my language arts and Spanish classes. There are many effective ways of using graphic organizers. Of course, graphic organizers are great tools to help students organize their thoughts in preparation for a writing assignment, but they can also be excellent tools for students comparing and contrasting two things, such as a book that was read and the movie version. Usually, this can be done by using a Venn Diagram or "Y" chart. In Spanish, I have used a Venn Diagram for students to compare and contrast Mexican Independence Day to Independence Day here in the U.S. Rather than simply reading about the differences, this gives students an engaging way to sort through the information pertaining to both holidays and to visualize the similarities and differences.
One of the more interesting graphic organizers I have seen recently is in the area of social studies. A teacher at University Laboratory High School (Urbana) has developed a program that uses flowcharts to show the "flow" of history. World history at Uni High is now taught this way to all students, and american history is being considered. Not only do the students learn the cause and effect of historical events, but they see interesting things like cycles, branches and consolidations. See Chris Butler's Flow of History - M. Cornell
As a special educator, my students use a graphic organizer when preparing to write any type of writing assignment. They did not initially want to use it, but since the implementation of them, they don't want to stop using them. I think it helps them get their thoughts down in an organized manner and gives them the structure that wouldn't just come to them if they were just to begin writing. I have seen a huge improvement in my kids writing since graphic organizers were implemented! Gay Cabutti
Teaching special education math I have created simple graphic organizers and flow charts that have helped students remember what steps go in order to solve different types of problems. The students seem to better understand the material and comprehend the lessons better with the charts. One of the lessons that I use this with is adding and subtracting positive negative integers. With the many different rules, the flow chart helps students ask questions and follow the flow chart to figure out what they need to do. C. Grice
I use graphic organizers often with my elementary students. When beginning the writing process I think it is important to allow students time to organize their thoughts before the writing begins. Often I will use a computer program such as Kidspiration to help students stay organized. Students can make a web of their ideas and with a press of a button that web can be turned into an outline. Students can also expand on that outline and then easily transfer their thoughts to paper. The students and teachers both love this program. S. Nottoli
In my English Department we have adopted a graphic organizer approach that allows students to compile their argument for their essay before actually writing the essay. The graphic organizer is set up with a long horizontal box at the top where their argument or Claim will go. Under this horizontal box are three even rows, each row designated for a separate Reason for their argument. At the top of each row is a box with "Reason" in it. From there, moving down, below the Reason they will have to supply their Evidence, then an Explanation, then a Warrant. There are two spaces under each reason for Evidence and Explanation because we want them to show a pattern of evidence rather than just one example to support each individual reason. This graphic organizer literally maps out their essay for them, allowing them to see their argument, along with the various parts of the argument, before committing it to the essay. What usually happens in the construction of this organizer is students find weaknesses or flaws in their logic and this organizer helps to ensure their argument maintains focus and logic throughout. ~ B. Chambers
I have begun using graphic organizers in the math classroom as well. It enables geometry students to layout a clear thought process of all of the things which need to take place in a proof before trying to determine their order. By doing this some students are also finding where they may need an additional step. --M. Pule
References and other links of interest
Links
Graphic Organizers - Five main types, and examples of each.
Tools for Reading, Writing, & Thinking This is a fantastic resource for graphic organizers. The graphic organizers are broken down by subject (reading or writing) and has a description of each document. You can also be directly linked to organizers that complement reading strategies, as well as rubrics for various writing and speaking activities.
Online version of Chapter 6 - Nonlinguistic Representation in Robert Marzano's Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement
Resources useful in writing - including graphic organizers, mind mapping, and concept mapping.
Graphic Organizer Makers
Graphic Organizers in General
Index of Graphic Organizers
Types of Graphic Organizers
Printable Graphic Organizers
NCREL Graphic Organizers
References
Bromley, K., Irwin-DeVitis, & Modlo, M. (1995). Graphic Organizers. Scholastic Professional Books: New York.
Cruikshank, Dona. "Module 6 Graphic Organizers." LCE-Learner Centered Education. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://www.learnercentereded.org/Courses/RSL/Module6.htm
Hall, Tracey and Strangman, Nicole. "Graphic Organizers." National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum Publications. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from Center for Applied Special Technology Universal Design for Learning http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_go.html
Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration. (July 2003). Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:juJ2GVrOWa8J:www.engagingminds.com/inspiration/Kidspiration_Inspiration/fullrearch.pdf+evidence+%22graphic+organizers%22+effective+learning&hl=en&client=safari
Marzano, Robert, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack. Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2001.
Retrieved from "http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Graphic_organizer"
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A graphic organizer is an instructional tool used to illustrate a student or class's prior knowledge about a topic or section of text
"Semantic Map, structured overview, web, concept map, semantic organizer, story map, graphic organizer...No matter what the special name, a graphic organizer is a VISUAL representation of knowledge. It is a way of structuring information, of arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern using labels" (Bromley, Irwin-DeVitis,& Modlo, p. 6). Graphic organizers are one way of using Advance organizers.
Types of Graphic Organizers
Cause-Effect Chart
Classification Chart
Concept Web
KWL Chart
Matrix
Mind Map
SQ3R Chart
Sequence/Flow Chart
Spider Map
T-Chart
Thinking Tree
Time Line Chart
Two Story Map
Venn Diagram
In Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement, by Robert J. Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack, it is suggested that all graphic organizers can be placed into six common patterns:
Descriptive Patterns
Time-Sequence Patterns
Process/Cause-Effect Patterns
Episode Patterns
Generalization/Principle Patterns
Concept Patterns
Marzano feels that graphic organizers are the "most common way to help students generate nonlinguistic representation" (Marzano 75). Marzano also cites Educational Technology Research and Development by Gerlic & Jausovec (1999), where the authors write that "engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic representations stimulates and increases activity in th brain" (73). ""
See Links (below) for Printable Graphic Organizers, Makers, and Index of Graphic Organizers
Application in classrooms and similar settings
"Graphic organizers have been applied across a range of curriculum subject areas. Although reading is by far the most well studied application, science, social studies, language arts, and math are additional content areas that are represented in the research base on graphic organizers." (Hall & Strangman, 2005)
Point of Implementation
Before a new learning situation to set the stage, address prior knowledge, develop background or essential learning and guide thinking.
During a new learning situation to categorize and/or organize information, raise questions for consideration, predict solutions or conclusions;
After a new learning situation, to confirm or reject prior knowledge, relate new information to what was already known, extend new learning to other situations ;
With material already learned, a simple way to organize or outline learning or ideas;
When developing a piece of writing, as an effective means to organize thoughts or ideas.
To develop criticism or feedback during peer evaluation of projects or writing assignments.
Evidence of effectiveness
The studies reviewed by Tracey Hall and Niclole Strangman (2005) showed the use of graphic organizers improving comprehension and more significantly improving vocabulary knowledge. Hall and Strangman (2005) cite Moore and Readence (1984) to indicate that the use of graphic organizers has a greater effect when used after the learning material rather that before.
Relatively new is the research on computer-based graphic organizers, for example the use of the the software, Inspiration. A listing of studies supporting the effectiveness of graphic organizers on student learning is available from Inspiration, Visual Learning Research and an evaluation by the Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration, Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research (July 2003) also supports visual learning techniques supporting student learning and performance.
Critics and their rationale
While Graphic Organizers can be a huge help to visual learners, they can often be overused in the classroom and retard the learning of other students in the classroom. The visual representation of the information can take more time to construct and also lack the depth of organizational systems. Advanced students can become bored of what feels like excessive time wasted on making ideas easier to read when they already understood the concept. Forcing all students to use graphic organizers can repress the free thinking and creative of many students. It should be seen as an aid, not a foundation.
Alternative explanations due to Diversity considerations
Good teaching strategies are good for everyone!
Signed "life experiences", testimonies and stories
Testimonial by B. Moore
I have used graphic organizers to help me teach Jr. High Geography. Graphic organizers give students a purpose to their reading. Students who struggle in school often need this purpose to motivate themselves for the activity. I use Venn Diagrams the most in my classroom. It is a very easy format that works well when comparing and contrasting two countries, continents, landforms, culture, etc. These diagrams also are good prewriting activities for students. I have also used Inspiration to make concept maps for my students. This allows them to see how things in class are connected.
Testimonal by C.McCulley I have used graphic organizers and concept maps with my art students, especially during art critique. I find it helps them organize their thoughts before they speak about their artwork. We specifically focus on four things in an art critique Describe, Analyze, Discuss, and Interpret. I think having a visual model or image helps them to visual see connections between the artwork and the objectives of the assignment.
Testimonial by J. Vallowe
I have used concept maps in my biology classes. At first students need a lot of support in the construction of their maps. However, they become more proficient through practice and use of these maps. Students develop better relationships between concepts as evidenced in their verbal and written explanations. -- Janet Vallowe
Testimonial by H. Savoca
Using graphic organizers promotes organization of text, whether it be in reading or writing. Graphic organizers foster metacognition and offer techniques for sorting information. These templates help readers dissect information. They often incorporate signaling techniques or fit predetermined, common modalities of text prganiztaion/structure. I use graphic oragnizers in both writing and reading instruction in my classroom. Currently, I am using a "pillar" that guides students through writing expository essays, as well as a summary graphic oragnizer which allows my students to identify main ideas vs. insignificant details in reading passages, while enhancing retelling skills. I applaud the use of graphic organizers and find them to be an effective means of promoting learning in my classroom. --Heidi M. Savoca
Testimonial by N. Frick
Using graphic organizers has really helped me with my guided reading instruction. I have found that it gives students a focal point. As they are reading and thinking about what they have read, graphic organizers give students and easy way to organize their thoughts. I have also used a 4-square graphic organizer for writing expository and persuasive papers. The 4-square really helps struggling writers to get their thoughts in order, and it gives the better writers a good place to start from. With proper instruction and teacher modeling, graphic organizers are great resources for both students and teachers.\
Testimonial by N. Meeker
I use graphic organizeers before every writing assignment that I give my sixth graders. I have just received Inspiration and will use it next year with every student. I think it will be a major help for those students who have difficulty organizing their thoughts. Inspiration will much more quickly show them the possibilities. I also taught public speaking for many years and this program would have been beneficial in those classes also. We also use graphic organizers throughout the study of novels, beginning with KWL. we are currently studying Tom Sawyer and students are finding out that they cannot depend on the Hollywood version- that some of the things they thought they knew about the story are quite different in Mark Twain's original story. N. Meeker
Testimonial by D. Heater For part of a project I added an essay to a recent test. The coop teacher that I was working with was not sure her students would be able to write an essay as they had not needed to do so all year. We spent some time using graphic organizers to help them prepare first listing all the pertinant information and then putting it into a Venn diagram. On the test itself we gave them a chart to fill out prior to writing the essay. to this teachers surprise a vast majority of the students completed the essay, and did so well!
An excellent way to integrate technology into the classroom, related to graphic organizers, is to use Inspiration or Kidspiration software. Although the software is not free, it is very beneficial for the development of writing and higher order thinking. A nice feature of the software is the ability to switch between chart and outline formats. If an chart (graphic organizer) is edited the changes are automatically made in the outline and vice-versa. This allows students to use a graphic organizer to plan a story and then view the outline to begin writing.--Benish 22:34, 30 Apr 2005 (CDT)
Testimonial by Bonnie I have used graphic organizers for years. I find them highly effective. They are a good use of time and the students walk away from my instruction with information that is well organized and easily read. I teach science but much of my instruction begins with teaching my students to read and make sense of scientific information.
Testimonial by K. Kleckauskas:
I frequently use graphic organizers in both my language arts and Spanish classes. There are many effective ways of using graphic organizers. Of course, graphic organizers are great tools to help students organize their thoughts in preparation for a writing assignment, but they can also be excellent tools for students comparing and contrasting two things, such as a book that was read and the movie version. Usually, this can be done by using a Venn Diagram or "Y" chart. In Spanish, I have used a Venn Diagram for students to compare and contrast Mexican Independence Day to Independence Day here in the U.S. Rather than simply reading about the differences, this gives students an engaging way to sort through the information pertaining to both holidays and to visualize the similarities and differences.
One of the more interesting graphic organizers I have seen recently is in the area of social studies. A teacher at University Laboratory High School (Urbana) has developed a program that uses flowcharts to show the "flow" of history. World history at Uni High is now taught this way to all students, and american history is being considered. Not only do the students learn the cause and effect of historical events, but they see interesting things like cycles, branches and consolidations. See Chris Butler's Flow of History - M. Cornell
As a special educator, my students use a graphic organizer when preparing to write any type of writing assignment. They did not initially want to use it, but since the implementation of them, they don't want to stop using them. I think it helps them get their thoughts down in an organized manner and gives them the structure that wouldn't just come to them if they were just to begin writing. I have seen a huge improvement in my kids writing since graphic organizers were implemented! Gay Cabutti
Teaching special education math I have created simple graphic organizers and flow charts that have helped students remember what steps go in order to solve different types of problems. The students seem to better understand the material and comprehend the lessons better with the charts. One of the lessons that I use this with is adding and subtracting positive negative integers. With the many different rules, the flow chart helps students ask questions and follow the flow chart to figure out what they need to do. C. Grice
I use graphic organizers often with my elementary students. When beginning the writing process I think it is important to allow students time to organize their thoughts before the writing begins. Often I will use a computer program such as Kidspiration to help students stay organized. Students can make a web of their ideas and with a press of a button that web can be turned into an outline. Students can also expand on that outline and then easily transfer their thoughts to paper. The students and teachers both love this program. S. Nottoli
In my English Department we have adopted a graphic organizer approach that allows students to compile their argument for their essay before actually writing the essay. The graphic organizer is set up with a long horizontal box at the top where their argument or Claim will go. Under this horizontal box are three even rows, each row designated for a separate Reason for their argument. At the top of each row is a box with "Reason" in it. From there, moving down, below the Reason they will have to supply their Evidence, then an Explanation, then a Warrant. There are two spaces under each reason for Evidence and Explanation because we want them to show a pattern of evidence rather than just one example to support each individual reason. This graphic organizer literally maps out their essay for them, allowing them to see their argument, along with the various parts of the argument, before committing it to the essay. What usually happens in the construction of this organizer is students find weaknesses or flaws in their logic and this organizer helps to ensure their argument maintains focus and logic throughout. ~ B. Chambers
I have begun using graphic organizers in the math classroom as well. It enables geometry students to layout a clear thought process of all of the things which need to take place in a proof before trying to determine their order. By doing this some students are also finding where they may need an additional step. --M. Pule
References and other links of interest
Links
Graphic Organizers - Five main types, and examples of each.
Tools for Reading, Writing, & Thinking This is a fantastic resource for graphic organizers. The graphic organizers are broken down by subject (reading or writing) and has a description of each document. You can also be directly linked to organizers that complement reading strategies, as well as rubrics for various writing and speaking activities.
Online version of Chapter 6 - Nonlinguistic Representation in Robert Marzano's Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement
Resources useful in writing - including graphic organizers, mind mapping, and concept mapping.
Graphic Organizer Makers
Graphic Organizers in General
Index of Graphic Organizers
Types of Graphic Organizers
Printable Graphic Organizers
NCREL Graphic Organizers
References
Bromley, K., Irwin-DeVitis, & Modlo, M. (1995). Graphic Organizers. Scholastic Professional Books: New York.
Cruikshank, Dona. "Module 6 Graphic Organizers." LCE-Learner Centered Education. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://www.learnercentereded.org/Courses/RSL/Module6.htm
Hall, Tracey and Strangman, Nicole. "Graphic Organizers." National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum Publications. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from Center for Applied Special Technology Universal Design for Learning http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_go.html
Institute of Advancement of Research in Education (IARE) at AEL for Inspiration. (July 2003). Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research. Retrieved March 23, 2005 from http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:juJ2GVrOWa8J:www.engagingminds.com/inspiration/Kidspiration_Inspiration/fullrearch.pdf+evidence+%22graphic+organizers%22+effective+learning&hl=en&client=safari
Marzano, Robert, Debra Pickering, and Jane E. Pollack. Classroom Instruction that Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2001.
Retrieved from "http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Graphic_organizer"
Categories: EPSY400 ClassroomLearning | EPSY490 ClassroomLearningAndManagement(CTER)ViewsPage Discussion View source History Personal toolsLog in Navigation
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Saturday, November 7, 2009
Structuration Theory/Adaptive - [Margith Strand 2008] BUILD
Adaptive Structuration Theory
role of information technologies in organization change
University of Twente/November 7, 2009/Google Search origination
History and Orientation
Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. This theory is formulated as “the production and reproduction of the social systems through members’ use of rules and resources in interaction”. DeSanctis and Poole adapted Giddens' theory to study the interaction of groups and organizations with information technology, and called it Adaptive Structuration Theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities. These perceptions can vary widely across groups. These perceptions influence the way how technology is used and hence mediate its impact on group outcomes.
Core Assumptions and Statements
AST is a viable approach for studying the role of advanced information technologies in organization change. AST examines the change process from two vantage points 1) the types of structures that are provided by the advanced technologies and 2) the structures that actually emerge in human action as people interact with these technologies.
1. Structuration Theory, deals with the evolution and development of groups and organizations.
2. The theory views groups or organizations as systems with ("observable patterns of relationships and communicative interaction among people creating structures").
3. Systems are produced by actions of people creating structures (sets of rules and resources).
4. Systems and structures exist in a dual relationship with each others such that they tend to produce and reproduce each other in an ongoing cycle. This is referred to as the "structuration process."
5. The structuration process can be very stable, or it can change substantial over time.
6. It is useful to consider groups and organizations from a structuration perspective because doing so: (a) helps one understand the relative balance in the deterministic influences and willful choices that reveal groups' unique identities; (b) makes clearer than other perspectives the evolutionary character of groups and organizations; and (c) suggests possibilities for how members may be able to exercise more influence than they otherwise think themselves capable of.
Conceptual Model
See Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, p. 132.
Favorite Methods
To be added.
Scope and Application
The AST could be used to analyze the advent of various innovations such as the printed press, electricity, telegraph, mass transpirations, radio, telephone, TV, the Internet, etc., and show how the structures of these innovations penetrated the respective societies, influencing them, and how the social structures of those societies in turn influenced and modified innovations' original intent. In conclusion AST's appropriation process might be a good model to analyze the utilization and penetration of new media technologies in our society.
Example
In this example two groups are compared that used the Group Decision Support System (GDSS) for prioritizing projects for organizational investment. A written transcript and an audio tape produced qualitative summary. Also quantitative results were obtained which led to the following conclusions. Both groups had similar inputs to group interaction. The sources of structure and the group’s internal system were essentially the same in each group, except that group 1 had a member who was forceful in attempting to direct others and was often met with resistance. Group 2 spent much more time than group 1 defining the meaning of the system features and how they should be used relative to the task at hand; also group 2 had relatively few disagreements about appropriation or unfaithful appropriation. In group 2 conflict was confined to critical work on differences rather than the escalated argument present in group 1. This example shows how the Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) can help to understand advanced technology in group interactions. Although the same technology was introduced to both groups, the effects were not consistent due to differences in each group’s appropriation moves.
References
Key publications
Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, 121-147
Maznevski, M. L. & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging Space Over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and Effectiveness. Organization Science. 11, 473-492
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1985). Group Decision-making as a structurational process. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 71, 74-102.
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1986). A structurational approach to theory-building in group decision-making research. In R. Y. Hirokawa & M. S. Poole (Eds.),
Communication and group decision making (pp. 2437-264). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Seibold, D. (1998). Jurors¹ intuitive rules for deliberation: a structural approach to communication in jury decision making. Communication Monographs, 65, p. 287-307.
Anderson, R. & Ross, V. (1998). Questions of Communication: A practical introduction to theory (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin¹s Press, not in.
Cragan, J. F., & Shields, D.C. (1998). Understanding communication theory: The communicative forces for human action. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 229-230.
Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, p. 209-210, & 224-233.
Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 256.
Infante, D. A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, p. 180 & 348-351.
Littlejohn, S.W. (1999). Theories of human communication (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 319-322.
West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2000). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, p. 209-223.
Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, not in.
J.M. Caroll (Ed.) Scenario-based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. Wiley, NY, 1995.
W. Chin, A. Gopal, W. Salisbury. Advancing the theory of Adaptive Structuration: the development of a scale to measure faithfulness of Appropriation. Information Systems Research 8 (1997) 342-367.
G. DeSanctis, M.S. Poole. Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive Structuration Theory, Organization Science 5 (1994) 121-147.
A. Giddens. The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984.
A. Giddens. New rules of sociological method: a positive critique of interpretive sociologies, 2nd ed., Polity Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993.
J. Greenbaum and M. Kyng (Eds). Design at Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J., 1991.
P. Grefen, R. Wieringa. Subsystem Design Guidelines for Extensible General-Purpose Software. 3rd International Software Architecture Workshop (ISAW3); Orlando, Florida, 1998, 49-52.
P. Grefen, K. Sikkel, R. Wieringa. Two Case Studies of Subsystem Design for Extensible General-Purpose Software. Report 98-14, Center for Telematics and Information Technology, Enschede, Twente.
J.A. Hughes, D. Randall, D. Shapiro. Faltering from Ethnography to Design. Proc. ACM Conf. on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, 1992, 115-122.
C. Korunka, A. Weiss, & S. Zauchner. An interview study of 'continuous' implementations of information technology, Behaviour & information technology 16 (1997) 3-16.
P.B. Kruchten. The 4+1 View Model of Architecture. IEEE Software, Nov. 1995, 42-50.
V.L. O’Day, D.G. Bobrow, M. Shirley. The Social-Technical Design Circle. ACM Conf. on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW’96), Cambridge, Mass., 1996, 160-169.
W.J. Orlikowski. Improvising Organizational Transformation Over Time: A Situated Change Perspective. Information Systems Research 7 (1996) 63-92.
Dynamic Object Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) Reference Manual, Version 2.1 Quality Systems and Software ltd., Oxford, UK.
L.A. Suchman. Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1987.
A. Sutcliffe and S. Minocha. Linking Business Modelling to Socio-Technical System Design. CREWS-Report 98-43, Centre for HCI Design, City University, London.
L. Tornatzky and M. Fleischer. The process of Technological Innovation. Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1992.
See also Organizational Communication
Study choice
▪ Bsc Programmes
▪ Msc Programmes
▪ Majors / Minors
▪ Student & Education
▪ Student Union
▪ International Office
Education
▪ Behavioural Sciences BS
▪ Management and Governance
▪ Engineering Technology
▪ Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science
▪ Science and Technology
Research
▪ CTIT Centre for Telematics and Information Technology
▪ IBR Institute for Behavioural Research
▪ IGS Institute for Governance Studies
▪ IMPACT Institute of Mechanics, Processes and Control , Twente
▪ MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
▪ MIRA Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine
Valorization
role of information technologies in organization change
University of Twente/November 7, 2009/Google Search origination
History and Orientation
Adaptive Structuration Theory is based on Anthony Giddens' structuration theory. This theory is formulated as “the production and reproduction of the social systems through members’ use of rules and resources in interaction”. DeSanctis and Poole adapted Giddens' theory to study the interaction of groups and organizations with information technology, and called it Adaptive Structuration Theory. AST criticizes the technocentric view of technology use and emphasizes the social aspects. Groups and organizations using information technology for their work dynamically create perceptions about the role and utility of the technology, and how it can be applied to their activities. These perceptions can vary widely across groups. These perceptions influence the way how technology is used and hence mediate its impact on group outcomes.
Core Assumptions and Statements
AST is a viable approach for studying the role of advanced information technologies in organization change. AST examines the change process from two vantage points 1) the types of structures that are provided by the advanced technologies and 2) the structures that actually emerge in human action as people interact with these technologies.
1. Structuration Theory, deals with the evolution and development of groups and organizations.
2. The theory views groups or organizations as systems with ("observable patterns of relationships and communicative interaction among people creating structures").
3. Systems are produced by actions of people creating structures (sets of rules and resources).
4. Systems and structures exist in a dual relationship with each others such that they tend to produce and reproduce each other in an ongoing cycle. This is referred to as the "structuration process."
5. The structuration process can be very stable, or it can change substantial over time.
6. It is useful to consider groups and organizations from a structuration perspective because doing so: (a) helps one understand the relative balance in the deterministic influences and willful choices that reveal groups' unique identities; (b) makes clearer than other perspectives the evolutionary character of groups and organizations; and (c) suggests possibilities for how members may be able to exercise more influence than they otherwise think themselves capable of.
Conceptual Model
See Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, p. 132.
Favorite Methods
To be added.
Scope and Application
The AST could be used to analyze the advent of various innovations such as the printed press, electricity, telegraph, mass transpirations, radio, telephone, TV, the Internet, etc., and show how the structures of these innovations penetrated the respective societies, influencing them, and how the social structures of those societies in turn influenced and modified innovations' original intent. In conclusion AST's appropriation process might be a good model to analyze the utilization and penetration of new media technologies in our society.
Example
In this example two groups are compared that used the Group Decision Support System (GDSS) for prioritizing projects for organizational investment. A written transcript and an audio tape produced qualitative summary. Also quantitative results were obtained which led to the following conclusions. Both groups had similar inputs to group interaction. The sources of structure and the group’s internal system were essentially the same in each group, except that group 1 had a member who was forceful in attempting to direct others and was often met with resistance. Group 2 spent much more time than group 1 defining the meaning of the system features and how they should be used relative to the task at hand; also group 2 had relatively few disagreements about appropriation or unfaithful appropriation. In group 2 conflict was confined to critical work on differences rather than the escalated argument present in group 1. This example shows how the Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) can help to understand advanced technology in group interactions. Although the same technology was introduced to both groups, the effects were not consistent due to differences in each group’s appropriation moves.
References
Key publications
Desanctis, G. & Poole, M. S. (1994). Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory. Organization Science. 5, 121-147
Maznevski, M. L. & Chudoba, K. M. (2000). Bridging Space Over Time: Global Virtual Team Dynamics and Effectiveness. Organization Science. 11, 473-492
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1985). Group Decision-making as a structurational process. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 71, 74-102.
Poole, M. S., Seibold, D. R., & McPhee, R. D. (1986). A structurational approach to theory-building in group decision-making research. In R. Y. Hirokawa & M. S. Poole (Eds.),
Communication and group decision making (pp. 2437-264). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Seibold, D. (1998). Jurors¹ intuitive rules for deliberation: a structural approach to communication in jury decision making. Communication Monographs, 65, p. 287-307.
Anderson, R. & Ross, V. (1998). Questions of Communication: A practical introduction to theory (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin¹s Press, not in.
Cragan, J. F., & Shields, D.C. (1998). Understanding communication theory: The communicative forces for human action. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 229-230.
Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, p. 209-210, & 224-233.
Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 256.
Infante, D. A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, p. 180 & 348-351.
Littlejohn, S.W. (1999). Theories of human communication (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 319-322.
West, R., & Turner, L. H. (2000). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, p. 209-223.
Wood, J. T. (1997). Communication theories in action: An introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, not in.
J.M. Caroll (Ed.) Scenario-based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. Wiley, NY, 1995.
W. Chin, A. Gopal, W. Salisbury. Advancing the theory of Adaptive Structuration: the development of a scale to measure faithfulness of Appropriation. Information Systems Research 8 (1997) 342-367.
G. DeSanctis, M.S. Poole. Capturing the complexity in advanced technology use: Adaptive Structuration Theory, Organization Science 5 (1994) 121-147.
A. Giddens. The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984.
A. Giddens. New rules of sociological method: a positive critique of interpretive sociologies, 2nd ed., Polity Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993.
J. Greenbaum and M. Kyng (Eds). Design at Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J., 1991.
P. Grefen, R. Wieringa. Subsystem Design Guidelines for Extensible General-Purpose Software. 3rd International Software Architecture Workshop (ISAW3); Orlando, Florida, 1998, 49-52.
P. Grefen, K. Sikkel, R. Wieringa. Two Case Studies of Subsystem Design for Extensible General-Purpose Software. Report 98-14, Center for Telematics and Information Technology, Enschede, Twente.
J.A. Hughes, D. Randall, D. Shapiro. Faltering from Ethnography to Design. Proc. ACM Conf. on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, 1992, 115-122.
C. Korunka, A. Weiss, & S. Zauchner. An interview study of 'continuous' implementations of information technology, Behaviour & information technology 16 (1997) 3-16.
P.B. Kruchten. The 4+1 View Model of Architecture. IEEE Software, Nov. 1995, 42-50.
V.L. O’Day, D.G. Bobrow, M. Shirley. The Social-Technical Design Circle. ACM Conf. on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW’96), Cambridge, Mass., 1996, 160-169.
W.J. Orlikowski. Improvising Organizational Transformation Over Time: A Situated Change Perspective. Information Systems Research 7 (1996) 63-92.
Dynamic Object Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) Reference Manual, Version 2.1 Quality Systems and Software ltd., Oxford, UK.
L.A. Suchman. Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1987.
A. Sutcliffe and S. Minocha. Linking Business Modelling to Socio-Technical System Design. CREWS-Report 98-43, Centre for HCI Design, City University, London.
L. Tornatzky and M. Fleischer. The process of Technological Innovation. Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1992.
See also Organizational Communication
Study choice
▪ Bsc Programmes
▪ Msc Programmes
▪ Majors / Minors
▪ Student & Education
▪ Student Union
▪ International Office
Education
▪ Behavioural Sciences BS
▪ Management and Governance
▪ Engineering Technology
▪ Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science
▪ Science and Technology
Research
▪ CTIT Centre for Telematics and Information Technology
▪ IBR Institute for Behavioural Research
▪ IGS Institute for Governance Studies
▪ IMPACT Institute of Mechanics, Processes and Control , Twente
▪ MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
▪ MIRA Biomedical Technology & Technical Medicine
Valorization
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